Science Meets Real Life Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Science Meets Real Life - Essay Example This essay stresses that people can become sick when they are exposed to virus and also by consuming contaminated food. An inspection of the restaurant has brought to fore the fact that it is not only unhygienic, but also lacks in the basic facilities. The kitchens of most of the restaurants do not have any ceilings and the shelves of the freezers are dirty. Besides, the cloths that the cooks use for wiping food contact surfaces are not cleaned in sanitizing solutions. Another major aspect that has come to notice is the fact that â€Å"Food thermometers were not being used by employees†. A comparison of the school calendars of the institutions indicates that the students from both schools have met and interacted on the occasion of the May Day Parade. They have also met on 15th May for planning meeting for the battle of the bands, which has been scheduled for 19th May. This paper makes a conclusion that more students may have become exposed to virus due to their interaction on the occasion of the functions related to band parade. The following testable questions can be offered for further investigation: what specific reasons can be attributed to the absence of students in both schools? what may be the causes for the common disease among the students? how are the students from both the schools affected at the same time? if the students from both the schools are suffering from the same problem when have they been exposed to the virus? how are they exposed to the same disease causing agents? what measures can be taken to prevent food contamination in restaurants?

Leadership Development Report Essay Example for Free

Leadership Development Report Essay Leadership has a paramount importance in the business world. It is not about a position, but how a person can influence others in creating and working towards that common organisation’s goal, and to create meaning in the works that we do. This report begins with the servant leadership framework that covers what I value in leadership. Also included in this report are the self-assessments that measure my leadership potential and competencies. This report also covers the issues associated to the industry I have chosen to work in and address my person-specific issues. II. LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT MODEL (175) Definition servant leadership Servant leadership is a type of leadership where the leader does order to be served; but focus on serving their followers in order to assist and guide them into more useful and satisfied people. This theory emphasize on the creation of moral purpose for leaders. It focuses on the impact that they leave on other people’s life to measure their greatness. Characteristics of servant leadership The servant leadership theory consists of ten key characteristics. These characteristics are; listening intently, empathy, healing, awareness, persuasion, conceptualization, foresight, stewardship, commitment to the growth of people, and building community. (Miller, Skringar, Dalglish Stevens, 2012) Why servant leadership? My concept of leadership is someone who is able to influence their followers through inspiration, empower them to realize their undiscovered true potential, and bring meaning to their life. In addition, I believe that a leader needs to be able to listen to their follower’s need in order to put the will of the group above their own will on the group. I strongly uphold the need for empathy in my leadership concept, because I believe that a leader must be able to put themselves in their follower’s shoes and perceive things through the eyes of their followers in order to gain understanding from different perspectives and to empower the followers to bring out their passion and thus bring forward their fullest potential in making a meaningful work. As mentioned by a successful leader – Fred A. Mansk Jr, â€Å" The ultimate leader is one who is willing to develop people to the point that they eventually surpass him or her in knowledge and ability.† Therefore, I find Servant Leadership as the most suitable framework for my leadership plan. III. Diagnosis of Strength and Weaknesses To support the diagnostic process and to provide the information on my leadership strengths and weaknesses I am using the information from two personality tests; Carl Jung’s and Issabel Briggs Myer’s Typology Test and a standardized emotional intelligent (EI) test. Self Assessments Carl Jung’s and Issabel Briggs Myer’s Typology Test Carl Jung’s and Issabel Briggs Myer’s Typology Test is a psychometric assessment designed to measure the preferences in how people perceive the world and make decisions based on their psychological preference. The aim of this test is to help people to have a better understanding of themselves, by understanding their strengths, weaknesses, possible career preferences and their preferred approach when interacting with others. This test puts one into four letter categories, where each letter stands for a specific personality type. (Briggs, Myers, 1998) After undertaking this typology test, I was classified under INFJ (Introvert, iNtuitive, Feeling, Judging) typology. Firstly, introversion displays a characteristic that is reserved and highly private. This goes in line with my personal characteristic as I look within for meaning and understanding. Secondly, intuition indicates an emphasis on abstract ideas and focusing on the meaning of the bigger picture rather than solid details. Feeling focuses mainly on personal concerns and emotional perception rather than the logical and objective facts. Judging describes about the need to have control by planning, organizing and making decisions as soon as possible because of INFJs’ deep attention on the future. INFJ type is described as having the strengths of being determined and passionate, altruistic, decisive, insightful, creative, inspiring and convincing. Dr. Dranitsaris stated that INFJ leadership style is quiet and influencing. INFJ leaders often lead by inspiring and motivating people with their ideals, working hard to gain the cooperation of others rather than demanding it. In a business context, INFJ leaders also tend to genuinely care about the people and how happy they are with their job. (Dranitsaris, 2009). This describes the traits considered as strengths of the INFJ type: that of being warm, altruistic and passionate. The main motive for every work done is not focused centrally on gaining personal benefit but for the greater good of the broader society; to find value and purpose for every tasks. Also, INFJs are described to be deeply concerned about their relations with people and how it links to humanity. (Heiss, Butt, 1996) These are the strengths I believe I possess in myself and these characteristics go in line with the framework of servant leadership as explained previously. However, the very strong need to have a cause for every work done can serve as a weakness for INFJ. This is because it can become difficult to maintain the drive and energy to complete works when I am not able to derive any deeper purpose or relate the objective of the work to a worthy goal. The complexity INFJ is further seen with the tendency to be idealistic. When objectives are not in line with a meaningful goal, INFJ will incline to grow restless and demotivated overtime. This will affect the effort and end result. The result may deviate from the targeted aim which becomes a conflict with the need for perfection. These weaknesses are worsen with the reserved nature of INFJ which may trigger unexpressed internal conflicts. Emotional Intelligent Test (EI) Emotional Intelligent test, on the other hand is a psychological test which allow an individual to identify their social skills that facilitate their interpersonal behavior. It identifies one’s capacity for goal-oriented adaptive behavior. It focuses on the aspects of intelligence that govern self-knowledge and social adaptation. Below are the results that I have attained from this self-assessment: Strengths Potential Strength Weaknesses doing well in the area of emotional understanding chose good forms of resolution for others conflict situations on the test empathetic socially insightful driven towards self-development healthy approach in resolving conflict situations doing reasonably well in the area of emotional identification, perception, and expression act in accordance with your values lacking in self-motivation not very assertive need to strengthen self-esteem further development needed in personal resilience/hardiness. These strengths indicate that I possess some of the traits that are needed to display the characteristics of a good servant-leader. IV. Industry-Specific Issues Looking into the Hospitality industry, specifically Airlines, I will use Singapore Airlines as a basis of my evaluation. The extent of superior service is paramount for it to establish itself. In order to deliver the standard of service the company has set for itself, it requires highly passionate and motivated employees. One of the elements that contribute to the success of Singapore Airlines is its human resource that highly regards contribution of creative ideas in which rewards are later given. (Singh, 1984) To be passionate, to inspire and to encourage innovation are strengths found in INFJs that match with the traits of Servant Leaders who encourages and motivates the followers to making a meaningful and effective work efforts. V. Person-Specific Issues Gender, age and culture are important aspects to be considered in shaping one’s leadership development. Being someone coming from Asia, the idea of women becoming a leader will face cultural constraints. In the context of organization, becoming a female leader will be more challenging than the male counterpart because there is a strong notion whereby men are born to lead and women to follow or serve and men hold the leadership positions. (Carly, Eagly, 1999). This is still present in the traditional Asian culture. Even to the eyes of the followers, the figure that is seen to be capable of leading goes to male gender. The masculinity possessed becomes a symbol of strength and competency. (Schein, 2001) Instructions led by female leaders are more likely to be followed because of the idea of obedience to authority rather than being influenced through inspiration. The gender-bias corporate culture becomes a huge obstacle in making use of servant-leadership framework as a female. This gender bias is still evident in many office settings of Japanese corporations whereby higher ranking positions are given mostly to male; and in fact Japan seeing a near zero resemblance between women and managers. (Schein, Mueller, 1992) Besides that, age also becomes an issue in determining the level of experience of a professional. Younger age typically indicates limited exposure to the various real-life experiences and this may affect the extent of wisdom in making judgments. VI. Timeframe and Evaluation Plan The weaknesses based on the self-assessments are used to develop my leadership goals and the Michigan Leadership Competency Model serves as a tool to categorize the goals set and the timeframe for the plan. Time Frame Self-Developmental Goals Self-Management Conceptualization Servant leaders seek to nurture their abilities to dream great dreams; not just consumed by achieving operational goals. To develop characteristic and thinking process encompass broader-based conceptual thinking require discipline and practice. Leading Others Influencing/Persuasion Servant leaders seek to persuade and convince others through inspiration rather than coerce compliance. This requires a level of confidence, personal drive and energy to be emulated to the followers. As represented in one of my weaknesses from the self-assessment, I lack in self-motivation, self-esteem and assertiveness. These characteristics need to be developed in order to gain enough personal power to lead and guide others. Innovation Creativity Creativity is one of the key characteristics of servant leaders. Also, the hospitality industry takes great importance in areas of innovation to stay competitive and relevant. This is a characteristic that continually needs to be fostered and developed. Social Responsibility Ethically Social Servant Leadership highlights the importance of leading for the greater good for a deeper moral purpose. This emphasizes the need for moral awareness and ethical conducts when leading. This can be done by participating more in charitable or environmental causes which aim in improving social welfare of the broader society. Such participation allow exposure and knowledge-gaining. Evaluation by Multi-Step Action Plan 1 year Completing Bachelor of Business Degree 3 years Employment in Airline as Flight Attendant to gain exposure to new experiences, ethical conducts and ideas and insight knowledge on providing service in hospitality industry (Innovation Social Responsibility) 2 years Further study on Master of Hospitality Management to broaden conceptual thinking process. This also help to gain self-esteem and improve on the ability to influence (Conceptualization Influencing) Working in Management VII. Industry Leader Input Previously I focused my goals only on the trait developments. This was difficult measure because characteristics can only be proven once I’ve been put on the position to be a leader in a group. There was no tangible achievement to evaluate the success of my goal planning. Therefore, through his suggestion, I modified my goal timeframe by adding a multi-step action plan that cover the length of time to achieve each target. For example, the employment in an Airline industry will help me garner new experiences, perspective and practice discipline in work ethics. Feedback on my work performance from supervisors can serve as a form of evaluation. Also, the attainment of higher qualification will allow me to gain broader and deeper knowledge on the industry through research. The exposure and experience may help me to develop a stronger leadership characteristic and further evaluation can be done through taking re-test for EI. Wordcount: 1,509 words (Excluding References, Appedices, Headings Tables) VIII. Appendices 1. Michigan Leadership Competency Model Leadership Assessment Report Scores range from 1 to 6, with 1 indicating that you rated yourself low on that competency and 6 indicating that you rated yourself high. Introverted iNtuition Introverted intuitives, INFJs enjoy a greater clarity of perception of inner, unconscious processes than all but their INTJ cousins. Just as SP types commune with the object and live in the here and now of the physical world, INFJs readily grasp the hidden psychological stimuli behind the more observable dynamics of behavior and affect. Their amazing ability to deduce the inner workings of the mind, will and emotions of others gives INFJs their reputation as prophets and seers. Unlike the confining, routinizing nature of introverted sensing, introverted intuition frees this type to act insightfully and spontaneously as unique solutions arise on an event by event basis. Extraverted Feeling Extraverted feeling, the auxiliary deciding function, expresses a range of emotion and opinions of, for and about people. INFJs, like many other FJ types, find themselves caught between the desire to express their wealth of feelings and moral conclusions about the actions and attitudes of others, and the awareness of the consequences of unbridled candor. Some vent the attending emotions in private, to trusted allies. Such confidants are chosen with care, for INFJs are well aware of the treachery that can reside in the hearts of mortals. This particular combination of introverted intuition and extraverted feeling provides INFJs with the raw material from which perceptive counselors are shaped. Introverted Thinking The INFJs thinking is introverted, turned toward the subject. Perhaps it is when the INFJs thinking function is operative that he is most aloof. A comrade might surmise that such detachment signals a disillusionment, that she has also been found lacking by the sardonic eye of this one who plumbs the depths of the human spirit. Experience suggests that such distancing is merely an indication that the seer is hard at work and focusing energy into this less efficient tertiary function. Extraverted Sensing INFJs are twice blessed with clarity of vision, both internal and external. Just as they possess inner vision which is drawn to the forms of the unconscious, they also have external sensing perception which readily takes hold of worldly objects. Sensing, however, is the weakest of the INFJs arsenal and the most vulnerable. INFJs, like their fellow intuitives, may be so absorbed in intuitive perceiving that they become oblivious to physical reality. The INFJ under stress may fall prey to various forms of immediate gratification. Awareness of extraverted sensing is probably the source of the SP wannabe side of INFJs. Many yearn to live spontaneously; its not uncommon for INFJ actors to take on an SP (often ESTP) role. References Briggs, K. C., Myers, I. B. (1998). Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. Palo Alto, CA. Greenleaf, R. K. (1977). The Servant as Leader. Business Leadership: A Jossey-Bass Reader. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Miller, Skringar, Dalglish Stevens, (2012) Leadership and Change Management. 1st ed. Prahran VIC Australia: Tilde University Press. Maxwell, J. C., Dorvan, J. (1997). Becoming a Person of Influence: How to Positively Impact the Lives of Others. Nashville: Thomas Nelson Schein, V.E. (2001) A global look at psychological barriers to women’s progress in management. Journal of Social Issues. 57, pp. 675-688. Schein, V.E., Mueller, R. (1992). Sex role stereotyping and requisite management characteristics: A cross cultural look. Journal of Organizational Behavior. 13, pp. 439-447. Carli L.L., Eagly A.H. (1999). Gender effects on influence and emergent leadership Powell G.N. (Ed.), Handbook of gender and work, Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA, pp. 203–222 Soo Min Toh, Geoffrey J. Leonardelli (2012) Cultural constraints on the emergence of women as leaders. Journal of World Business, Vol. 47, Issue 4, pp. 604-611 Karmjit Singh (1984). Successful strategies—The story of Singapore Airlines (SIA) Long Range Planning, Vol.17, Issue 5, pp. 17-22 Dranitsaris, A., (ed.) 2009, Personality Type and Leadership Behaviour: Jung’s Typology for the Workplace, e-book, accessed 25 April 2013, Central Michigan University, 2004, Leadership Competency Model, accessed 20 April 2013, http://www.chsbs.cmich.edu/leader_model/CompModel/EDUMAIN.htm Heiss, M.M, Butt, J.,1999, INFJ, Typelogic, accessed 25 April 2013, HumanMetrics Jung’s Typology Test INFJ, 2012, accessed 25 April 2013,

Soil Analysis of the Himalayan Mountain System

Soil Analysis of the Himalayan Mountain System Chapter- 4 ABIOTIC ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES OF MORAINIC AND ALPINE ECOSYSTEMS Global warming/ enhanced greenhouse effect and the loss of biodiversity are the major environmental issues around the world. The greatest part of the worlds population lives in the tropical regions. Mountainous regions in many cases provide favourable conditions for water supply due to orographically enhanced convective precipitation. Earth scientists are examining ancient periods of extreme warmth, such as the Miocene climatic optimum of about 14.5-17 million years ago. Fossil floral and faunal evidences indicate that this was the warmest time of the past 35 million years; a mid-latitude temperature was as much as 60C higher than the present one. Many workers believe that high carbon dioxide levels, in combination with oceanographic changes, caused Miocene global warming by the green house effect. Pagani et al. (1999) present evidence for surprisingly low carbon dioxide levels of about 180-290ppm by volume throughout the early to late Miocene (9-25 million years). They concluded tha t green house warming by carbon dioxide couldnt explain Miocene warmth and other mechanism must have had a greater influence. Carbon dioxide is a trace gas in the Earths atmosphere, which exchanges between carbon reservoirs in particularly the oceans and the biosphere. Consequently atmospheric concentration shows temporal, local and regional fluctuations. Since the beginning of industrialization, its atmospheric concentration has increased. The 1974 mean concentration of atmospheric CO2 was about 330 ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1 (Baes et. al., 1976), which is equivalent to 2574 x 1015 g CO2 702.4 x 1015 C assuming 5.14 x 1021 g as the mass of the atmosphere. This value is significantly higher than the amount of atmospheric CO2 in 1860 that was about 290 ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1 (617.2 x 1015 g). Precise measurements of the atmospheric CO2 concentration started in 1957 at the South Pole, Antarctica (Brown and Keeling, 1965) and in 1958 at Mauna Loa, Hawaii (Pales and Keeling, 1965). Records from Mauna Loa show that the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere has risen since 1958, from 315 mmol mol-1 to approximately 360 315 mmol mol-1 in 1963 (Boden et al., 1994). From these records and other measurements that began more recently, it is clear that the present rate of CO2 increase ranges between 1.5 and 2.5 mmol mol-1 per annum. In the context of the Indian Himalayan region, the effect of warming is apparent on the recession of glaciers (Valdiya, 1988), which is one of the climatic sensitive environmental indicators, and serves as a measure of the natural variability of climate of mountains over long time scales (Beniston et al., 1997). However no comprehensive long-term data on CO2 levels are available. The consumption of CO2 by photosynthesis on land is about 120 x 1015 g dry organic matter/year, which is equivalent to about 54 x 1015gC/yr (Leith and Whittaker, 1975). Variations in the atmospheric CO2 content on land are mainly due to the exchange of CO2 between vegetation and the atmosphere (Leith, 1963; Baumgartner, 1969). The process in this exchange is photosynthesis and respiration. The consumption of CO2 by the living plant material is balanced by a corresponding production of CO2 during respiration of the plants themselves and from decay of organic material, which occurs mainly in the soil through the activity of bacteria (soil respiration). The release of CO2 from the soil depends on the type, structure, moisture and temperature of the soil. The CO2 concentration in soil can be 1000 times higher than in air (Enoch and Dasberg, 1971). Due to these processes, diurnal variations in the atmospheric CO2 contents on ground level are resulted. High mountain ecosystems are considered vulnerable to climate change (Beniston, 1994; Grabherr et al., 1995; Theurillat and Guisan, 2001). The European Alps experienced a 20 C increase in annual minimum temperatures during the twentieth century, with a marked rise since the early 1980s (Beniston et al., 1997). Upward moving of alpine plants has been noticed (Grabherr et al., 1994; Pauli et al., 2001), community composition has changed at high alpine sites (Keller et al., 2000), and treeline species have responded to climate warming by invasion of the alpine zone or increased growth rates during the last decades (Paulsen et al., 2000). Vegetation at glaciers fronts is commonly affected by glacial fluctuations (Coe, 1967; Spence, 1989; Mizumo, 1998). Coe (1967) described vegetation zonation, plant colonization and the distribution of individual plant species on the slopes below the Tyndall and Lewis glaciers. Spence (1989) analyzed the advance of plant communities in response to the re treat of the Tyndall and Lewis glaciers for the period 1958- 1984. Mizumo (1998) addressed plant communities in response to more recent glacial retreat by conducting field research in 1992, 1994, 1996 and 1997. The studies illustrated the link between ice retreat and colonization near the Tyndall and Lewis glaciers. The concern about the future global climate warming and its geoecological consequences strongly urges development and analysis of climate sensitive biomonitoring systems. The natural elevational tree limit is often assumed to represent an ideal early warming line predicted to respond positionally, structurally and compositionally even to quite modest climate fluctuations. Several field studies in different parts of the world present that climate warming earlier in the 20th century (up to the 1950s 1960s) has caused tree limit advances (Kullman, 1998). Purohit (1991) also reported upward shifting of species in Garhwal Himalaya. The Himalayan mountain system is a conspicuous landmass characterised by its unique crescent shape, high orography, varied lithology and complex structure. The mountain system is rather of young geological age through the rock material it contains has a long history of sedimentation, metamorphism and magmatism from Proterozoic to Quaternary in age. Geologically, it occupies a vast terrain covering the northern boundary of India, entire Nepal, Bhutan and parts of China and Pakistan stretching from almost 720 E to 960 E meridians for about 2500 km in length. In terms of orography, the geographers have conceived four zones in the Himalaya across its long axis. From south to north, these are (i) the sub-Himalaya, comprising low hill ranges of Siwalik, not rising above 1,000 m in altitude; (ii) the Lesser Himalaya, comprising a series of mountain ranges not rising above 4000 m in altitude; (iii) the Great Himalaya, comprising very high mountain ranges with glaciers, rising above 6,000 m i n altitude and (iv) the Trans-Himalaya, Comprising very high mountain ranges with glaciers. The four orographic zones of the Himalaya are not strictly broad morpho-tectonic units though tectonism must have played a key role in varied orographic attainments of different zones. Their conceived boundaries do not also coincide with those of litho-stratigraphic or tectono-stratigraphic units. Because of the involvement of a large number of parameters of variable nature, the geomorphic units are expected to be diverse but cause specific, having close links with mechanism and crustal movements (Ghosh, et al., 1989). Soil is essential for the continued existence of life on the planet. Soil takes thousands of years to form and only few years to destroy their productivity as a result of erosion and other types of improper management. It is a three dimensional body consisting of solid, liquid and gaseous phase. It includes any part of earths crust, which through the process of weathering and incorporation of organic matter has become capable in securing and supporting plants. Living organisms and the transformation they perform have a profound effect on the ability of soils to provide food and fiber for expanding world population. Soils are used to produce crops, range and timber. Soil is basic to our survival and it is natures waste disposal medium and it serves as habitats for varied kinds of plants, birds, animals, and microorganisms. As a source of stores and transformers of plant nutrients, soil has a major influence on terrestrial ecosystems. Soil continuously recycles plant and animal remains , and they are major support systems for human life, determining the agricultural production capacity of the land (Anthwal, 2004). Soil is a natural product of the environment. Native soil forms from the parent material by action of climate (temperature, wind, and water), native vegetation and microbes. The shape of the land surface affects soil formation. It is also affected by the time it took for climate, vegetation, and microbes to create the soil. Soil varies greatly in time and space. Over time-scales relevant to geo-indicators, they have both stable characteristics (e.g. mineralogical composition and relative proportions of sand, silt and clay) and those that respond rapidly to changing environmental conditions (e.g. ground freezing). The latter characteristics include soil moisture and soil microbiota (e.g. nematodes, microbes), which are essential to fluxes of plant nutrients and greenhouse gases (Peirce, and Larson, 1996.). Most soils resist short-term climate change, but some may undergo irreversible change such as lateritic hardening and densification, podsolization, or large-scale erosion. Chemical degradation takes place because of depletion of soluble elements through rainwater leaching, over cropping and over grazing, or because of the accumulation of salts precipitated from rising ground water or irrigation schemes. It may also be caused by sewage containing toxic metals, precipitation of acidic and other airborne contaminants, as well as by persistent use of fertilizers and pesticides (Page et al., 1986). Physical degradation results from land clearing, erosion and compaction by machinery (Klute, 1986). The key soil indicators are texture (especially clay content), bulk density, aggregate stability and size distribution, and water-holding capacity (Anthwal, 2004). Soil consists of 45% mineral, 25% water, 25% air and 5% organic matter (both living and dead organisms). There are thousands of different soils throughout the world. Soil are classified on the basis of their parent material, texture, structure, and profile There are five key factors in soil formation: i) type of parent material; ii) climate; iii) overlying vegetation; iv) topography or slope; and v) time. Climate controls the distribution of vegetation or soil organisms. Together climate and vegetation/soil organisms often are called the active factors of soil formation (genesis). This is because, on gently undulating topography within a certain climatic and vegetative zone a characteristic or typical soil will develop unless parent material differences are very great (Anthwal, 2004). Thus, the tall and mid-grass prairie soils have developed across a variety of parent materials. Soil structure comprises the physical constitution of soil material as expressed by size, shape, and arrangement of solid particles and voids (Jongmans et al., 2001). Soil structure is an important soil property in many clayey, agricultural soils. Physical and chemical properties and also the nutrient status of the soil vary spatially due to the changing nature of the climate, parent material, physiographic position and vegetation (Behari et al., 2004). Soil brings together many ecosystem processes, integrating mineral and organic processes; and biological, physical and chemical processes (Arnold et al., 1990, Yaalon 1990). Soil may respond slowly to environmental changes than other elements of the ecosystem such as, the plants and animal do. Changes in soil organic matter can also indicate vegetation change, which can occur quickly because of climatic change (Almendinger, 1990). In high altitudes, soils are formed by the process of solifluction. Soils on the slopes above 300 are generally shallow due to erosion and mass wasting processes and usually have very thin surface horizons. Such skeletal soils have median to coarse texture depending on the type of material from which they have been derived. Glacial plants require water, mineral resources and support from substrate, which differ from alpine and lower altitude in many aspects. The plant life gets support by deeply weathered profile in moraine soils, which develops thin and mosaic type of vegetation. Most of the parent material is derived by mechanical weathering and the soils are rather coarse textured and stony. Permafrost occurs in many of the high mountains and the soils are typically cold and wet. The soils of the moraine region remain moist during the summer because drainage is impeded by permafrost (Gaur, 2002). In general, the north facing slopes support deep, moist and fertile soils. The south facing slopes, on the other hand, are precipitous and well exposed to denudation. These soils are shallow, dry and poor and are often devoid of any kind of regolith (Pandey, 1997). Based on various samples, Nand et al., (1989) finds negative correlation between soil pH and altitude and argues that decrease in pH with the increase in elevation is possibly accounted by high rainfall which facilitated leaching out of Calcium and Magnesium from surface soils. The soils are invariably rich in Potash, medium in Phosphorus and poor in Nitrogen contents. However, information on geo-morphological aspects, soil composition and mineral contents of alpine and moraine in Garhwal Himalaya are still lacking. Present investigation was aimed to carry out detail observations on soil composition of the alpine and moraine region of Garhwal Himalaya. 4.1. OBSERVATIONS As far as the recordings of abiotic environmental variables of morainic and alpine ecosystems of Dokriani Bamak are concerned, the atmospheric carbon dioxide and the physical and chemical characteristics of the soil were recorded under the present study. As these are important for the present study. 4.1.1. Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide Diurnal variations in the atmospheric CO2 were recorded at Dokriani Bamak from May 2005- October 2005. Generally the concentration of CO2 was higher during night and early morning hours (0600-0800) and lower during daytime. However, there were fluctuations in the patterns of diurnal changes in CO2 concentration on daily basis. In the month of May 2005, carbon dioxide concentration ranged from a minimum of 375Â µmol mol-1 to a maximum of 395Â µmol mol-1. When the values were averaged for the measurement days the maximum and minimum values ranged from 378Â µmol mol-1 to 388Â µmol mol-1. A difference of 20Â µmol mol-1 was found between the maximum and minimum values recorded for the measurement days. When the values were averaged, a difference of 10Â µmol mol-1 was observed between maximum and minimum values. During the measurement period, CO2 concentrations varied from a minimum of 377ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1 at 12 noon to a maximum of 400ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1 at 0800 hrs in the month of June, 2005. When the CO2 values were averaged for 6 days, the difference between the minimum and maximum values was about 23ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1. In the month of July, levels of carbon dioxide concentrations ranged from a minimum of 369ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1 to a maximum of 390ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1. When the values of the carbon dioxide concentrations for the measuring period were averaged, the difference between the minimum and maximum values was about 21ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1. Carbon dioxide concentration ranged from a minimum of 367ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1 to a maximum of 409ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1 during the month of August. When the values of carbon dioxide were averaged for the measurement days, the difference in the minimum and maximum values was about 42ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1. During the measurement period (September), CO2 concentrations varied from a minimum of 371ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1 at 12 noon to a maximum of 389ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1 at 0600 hrs indicating a difference of 18ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1 between the maximum and minimum values. When the values of the measurement days were averaged the minimum and maximum values ranged from 375ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1 to 387ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1 and a difference of 12ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1 was recorded. During the month of October, carbon dioxide levels ranged from a minimum of 372ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1 at 1400 hrs to a maximum of 403ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1 at 2000 hrs indicating a difference of 31ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1. When the values were averaged, the carbon dioxide levels ranged from a minimum of 376ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1 to a maximum of 415ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1.A difference in the minimum and maximum values was found to be 39Â µmol mol-1 when the values were averaged for the measurements days. In the growing season (May-October) overall carbon dioxide concentration was recorded to be highest in the month of June and seasonally it was recorded highest during the month of October 4.1.2. A. Soil Physical Characteristics of Soil Soil Colour and Texture Soils of the study area tend to have distinct variations in colour both horizontally and vertically (Table 4.1). The colour of the soil varied with soil depth. It was dark yellowish brown at the depth of 10-20cm, 30-40cm of AS1 and AS2, brown at the depth of 0-10cm of AS1 and AS2 and yellowish brown at the depths of 20-30cm, 40-50cm, 50-60cm of AS1 and AS2). Whereas the soil colour was grayish brown at the depths of 0-10cm, 30-40cm, 50-60cm of MS1 and MS2, dark grayish brown at the depths of 10-20cm, 20-30cm of MS1 and MS2 and brown at the depth of 40-50cm of both the moraine sites (MS1 and MS2). Soil texture is the relative volume of sand, silt and clay particles in a soil. Soils of the study area had high proportion of silt followed by sand and clay (Table 4.2). Soil of the alpine sites was identified as silty loam category, whereas, the soil of the moraine was of silty clayey loam category. Soil Temperature The soil temperature depends on the amount of heat reaching the soil surface and dissipation of heat in soil. Figure 4.2 depicts soil temperature at all the sites in the active growth period. A maximum (13.440C) soil temperature was recorded during the month of July and minimum (4.770C) during the month of October at AS1. The soil temperature varied between 5.10C being the lowest during the month of October to 12.710C as maximum during the month of August at AS2. Soil temperature ranged from 3.240C (October) to 11.210C (July) at MS1. However, the soil temperature ranged from 3.40C (October) to 12.330C (July) at MS2. Soil Moisture (%) Moisture has a big influence on soils ability to compact. Some soils wont compact well until moisture is 7-8%. Â  Likewise, wet soil also doesnt compact well. The mean soil water percentage (Fig. 4.3) in study area fluctuated between a maximum of 83% (AS1) to a minimum of 15% (AS2). The values of soil water percentage ranged from a minimum of 8% (MS2) to a maximum of 80% (MS1). Soil water percentage was higher in the month of July at AS1 and during August at MS1 (. During the month of June, soil water percentage was recorded minimum in the lower depth (50-60cm) at both the sites. Water Holding Capacity (WHC) The mean water holding capacity of the soil varied from alpine sites to moraine sites (Table 4.4). It ranged from a maximum of 89.66% (August) to a minimum of 79.15% (May) at AS1. The minimum and maximum values at AS2 were 78.88% (May) to 89.66% (August), respectively. The maximum WHC was recorded to be 84.61 % during the month of September on upper layer (0-10 cm) at MS1 and minimum 60.36% during the month of May in the lower layer (50-60cm) at MS1. At MS2, WHC ranged from 60.66% (May) to 84.61% (September). However, maximum WHC was recorded in upper layers at both the sites of alpine and moraine. Soil pH The soil pH varied from site to site during the course of the present study (Table 4.5). Mean pH values of all the sites are presented in Figure 4.4 The soil of the study area was acidic. Soil of the moraine sites was more acidic than that of the alpine sites. Soil pH ranged from 4.4 to 5.3 (AS1), 4.5 to 5.2 (AS2), 4.9 to 6.1 (MS1) and 4.8 to 5.7 (MS2). 4.1.2 B. Chemical Characteristics of Soil Organic Carbon (%): Soil organic carbon (SOC) varied with depths and months at both the alpine and moraine sites (Table 4.6). High percentage of organic carbon was observed in the upper layer of all sites during the entire period of study. Soil organic C decreased with depth and it was lowest in lower layers at all the sites. Soil organic carbon was maximum (5.1%) during July at AS1 because of high decomposition of litter, while it was minimum (4.2%) during October due to high uptake by plants in the uppermost layer (0-10 cm). A maximum (5.0%) SOC was found during the month of July and minimum (4.1%) during October at AS2. At the moraine sites, maximum (3.58%, 3.73%) SOC was found during June and minimum (1.5% and 1.9%) during August at MS1 and MS2 respectively. Phosphorus (%): A low amount of phosphorus was observed from May to August which increased during September and October. The mean phosphorus percentage ranged from 0.02 Â ± 0.01 to 0.07 Â ± 0.03 at AS1 and AS2. It was 0.03Â ±0.01 to 0.03Â ±0.02 at MS1 and MS2. Maximum percentage of phosphorus was estimated to be 0.09 in the uppermost layer (0-10 cm) during October at AS1. The lower layer (40-50 cm) of soil horizon contained a minimum of 0.01% phosphorus during September at AS1 and AS2. In the moraine sites (MS1 and MS2), maximum phosphorus percentage of 0.03 Â ±0.01 was estimated in the upper layers (0-10, 10-20, 20-30 cm) while it was found to be minimum (0.02Â ±0.01) in the lower layers (30-40 cm). Overall, a decreasing trend in amount of phosphorus was found with depth in alpine as well as moraine sites Potassium (%): A decline in potassium contents was also observed with declining depth during the active growing season. Maximum value of potassium was found in the uppermost layer (0-10 cm) at all the sites. The mean values ranged from 0.71Â ±0.02 to 46Â ±0.06 at AS1 while it was 0.71Â ±0.02 to 0.47Â ±0.05 at AS2. In the moraine sites the values ranged from a minimum of 0.33 Â ±0.06 to a maximum of 0.59Â ±0.05 in the MS1 and from 0.59Â ±0.05 to 0.32Â ±0.06 at MS2. In the upper layer of soil horizon (0-10 cm), maximum value of 0.74 %, 0.75% of potassium was observed during the month of July at AS1 and AS2. While the values were maximum in the month of October at moraine sites MS1 and MS2 having 0.66% and 0.65% respectively Nitrogen (%): Highest percentage of nitrogen was found in the upper layers at all the sites. Maximum percentage of nitrogen were found during the month of July-August (0.25%, 0.25 and 0.26%, 0.25%) at AS1 and AS2, respectively. Maximum values of 0.18% and 0.15% respectively were found during the month of June at the moraine sites MS1 and MS2. The nitrogen percentage ranged from 0.23Â ±0.02 to 0.04Â ±0.01% at AS1. However, it ranged from a minimum of 0.05Â ±0.01 to 0.24Â ±0.02% at AS2. The nitrogen percentage ranged from a minimum of 0.03Â ±0.01, 0.02Â ±0.04% to a maximum of 12Â ±0.03, 13Â ±0.01%, respectively at MS1 and MS2 Overall, a decreasing trend was noticed in the nitrogen percentage with depth at both the alpine and moraine sites. 4.2. DISCUSSION Soil has a close relationship with geomorphology and vegetation type of the area (Gaur, 2002). Any change in the geomorphological process and vegetational pattern influences the pedogenic processes. However, variability in soil is a characteristic even within same geomorphic position (Gaur, 2002). Jenney (1941) in his discussion on organisms as a soil forming factors treated vegetation both as an independent and as dependent variable. In order to examine the role of vegetation as an independent variable, it would be possible to study the properties of soil as influenced by vegetation while all other soil forming factors such as climate, parent material, topography and time are maintaining at a particular constellation. Many soil properties may be related to a climatic situation revealing thousand years ago (e.g. humid period during late glacial or the Holocene in the Alps and Andes (Korner, 1999). The soil forming processes are reflected in the colour of the surface soil (Pandey, 1997). The combination of iron oxides and organic content gives many soil types a brown colour (Anthwal, 2004). Many darker soils are not warmer than adjacent lighter coloured soils because of the temperature modifying effect of the moisture, in fact they may be cooler (Pandey, 1997). The alpine sites of the resent study has soil colour varying from dark yellowish brown/yellowish brown to brown at different depths. Likewise, at the moraine sites, the soil colour was dark grayish brown/grayish brown to brown. The dark coloured soils of the moraine and alpine sites having high humus contents absorb more heat than light coloured soils. Therefore, the dark soils hold more water. Water requires relatively large amount of heat than the soil minerals to raise its temperature and it also absorbs considerable heat for evaporation. At all sites, dark colour of soil was found due to high organic contents by the addition of litter. Soil texture is an important modifying factor in relation to the proportion of precipitation that enters the soil and is available to plants (Pandey, 1997). Texture refers to the proportion of sand, silt, and clay in the soil. Sandy soil is light or coarse-textured, whereas, the clay soils are heavy or fine-textured. Sand holds less moisture per unit volume, but permits more rapid percolation of precipitated water than silt and clay. Clay tends to increase the water-holding capacity of the soil. Loamy soils have a balanced sand, silt, and clay composition and are thus superior for plant growth (Pidwirny, 2004). Soil of the alpine zone of Dokriani Bamak was silty predominated by clay and loam, whereas the soil of moraine zone was silty predominated by sand and clay. There is a close relationship between atmospheric temperature and soil temperature. The high organic matter (humus) help in retaining more soil water. During summers, high radiations with greater insulation period enhance the atmospheric temperature resulted in the greater evaporation of soil water. In the monsoon months (July-August) the high rainfall increased soil moisture under relative atmospheric and soil temperature due to cloud-filter radiations (Pandey, 1997). Owing to September rainfall, atmospheric and soil temperatures decreased. The soil moisture is controlled by atmospheric temperature coupled with absorption of water by plants. During October, occasional rainfall and strong cold winds lower down the atmospheric temperature further. The soil temperature remains more or less intact from the outer influence due to a slight frost layer as well as vegetation cover. Soil temperature was recorded low at the moraine sites than the alpine sites. During May, insulation period in creases with increase in the atmospheric and soil temperature and it decreases during rainfall. The increasing temperature influences soil moisture adversely and an equilibrium is attained only after the first monsoon showers in the month of June which continued till August. Donahue et al. (1987) stated that no levelled land with a slope at right angle to the Sun would receive more heat per soil area and will warm faster than the flat surface. The soil layer impermeable to moisture have been cited as the reason for treelessness in part of the tropics, wherein its absence savanna develops (Beard, 1953). The resulting water logging of soil during the rainy season creates conditions not suitable for the growth of trees capable of surviving the dry season. The water holding capacity of the soil is determined by several factors. Most important among these are soil texture or size of particles, porosity and the amount of expansible organic matter and colloidal clay (Pandey, 1997). Water is held as thin film upon the surface of the particles and runs together forming drops in saturated soils, the amount necessarily increases with an increase in the water holding surface. Organic matter affects water contents directly by retaining water in large amount on the extensive surfaces of its colloidal constituents and also by holding it like a sponge in its less decayed portion. It also had an indirect effect through soil structure. Sand particles loosely cemented together by it, hence, percolation is decreased and water-holding capacity increased. Although fine textured soil can hold more water and thus more total water holding capacity but maximum available water is held in moderate textured soil. Porosity in soil consists of that portion of the soil volume not occupied by solids, either mineral or organic material. Under natural conditions, the pore spaces are occupied at all times by air and water. Pore spaces are irregular in shape in sand than the clay. The most rapid water and air movement is observed in sands than strongly aggregated soils. The pH of alpine sites ranged from 4.4 to 5.3 and it ranged from 4.8 to 6.1 in moraine sites of Dokriani Bamak. It indicated the acidic nature of the soil. The moraine sites were more acidic than the alpine sites. Acidity of soil is exhibited due to the presence of different acids. The organic matter and nitrogen contents inhibit the acidity of soil. The present observations pertaining to the soil pH (4.4 to 5.3 and 4.8 to 6.1) were more or less in the same range as reported for other meadows and moraine zones. Ram (1988) reported pH from 4.0-6.0 in Rudranath and Gaur (2002) on Chorabari. These pH ranges are lower than the oak and pine forests of lower altitudes of Himalayan region as observed by Singh and Singh, 1987 (pH:6.0-6.3). Furthermore, pH increased with depth. Bliss (1963) analyzed that in all types of soil, pH was low in upper layers (4.0-4.30) and it increased (4.6-4.9) in lower layer at New Hampshire due to reduction in organic matter. Das et al. (1988) reported the simil ar results in the sub alpine areas of Eastern Himalayas. All these reports support the present findings on Dokriani Bamak strongly. A potent acidic soil is intensively eroded and it has lower exchangeable cation, and possesses least microbial activity (Donahue et al., 1987). Misra et al., 1970 also observed higher acidity in the soil in the region where high precipitation results leaching. Koslowska (1934) demonstrated that when plants were grown under conditions of known pH, they make the culture medium either more acidic or alkaline and that this property differed according to the species. Soil properties may ch Soil Analysis of the Himalayan Mountain System Soil Analysis of the Himalayan Mountain System Chapter- 4 ABIOTIC ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES OF MORAINIC AND ALPINE ECOSYSTEMS Global warming/ enhanced greenhouse effect and the loss of biodiversity are the major environmental issues around the world. The greatest part of the worlds population lives in the tropical regions. Mountainous regions in many cases provide favourable conditions for water supply due to orographically enhanced convective precipitation. Earth scientists are examining ancient periods of extreme warmth, such as the Miocene climatic optimum of about 14.5-17 million years ago. Fossil floral and faunal evidences indicate that this was the warmest time of the past 35 million years; a mid-latitude temperature was as much as 60C higher than the present one. Many workers believe that high carbon dioxide levels, in combination with oceanographic changes, caused Miocene global warming by the green house effect. Pagani et al. (1999) present evidence for surprisingly low carbon dioxide levels of about 180-290ppm by volume throughout the early to late Miocene (9-25 million years). They concluded tha t green house warming by carbon dioxide couldnt explain Miocene warmth and other mechanism must have had a greater influence. Carbon dioxide is a trace gas in the Earths atmosphere, which exchanges between carbon reservoirs in particularly the oceans and the biosphere. Consequently atmospheric concentration shows temporal, local and regional fluctuations. Since the beginning of industrialization, its atmospheric concentration has increased. The 1974 mean concentration of atmospheric CO2 was about 330 ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1 (Baes et. al., 1976), which is equivalent to 2574 x 1015 g CO2 702.4 x 1015 C assuming 5.14 x 1021 g as the mass of the atmosphere. This value is significantly higher than the amount of atmospheric CO2 in 1860 that was about 290 ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1 (617.2 x 1015 g). Precise measurements of the atmospheric CO2 concentration started in 1957 at the South Pole, Antarctica (Brown and Keeling, 1965) and in 1958 at Mauna Loa, Hawaii (Pales and Keeling, 1965). Records from Mauna Loa show that the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere has risen since 1958, from 315 mmol mol-1 to approximately 360 315 mmol mol-1 in 1963 (Boden et al., 1994). From these records and other measurements that began more recently, it is clear that the present rate of CO2 increase ranges between 1.5 and 2.5 mmol mol-1 per annum. In the context of the Indian Himalayan region, the effect of warming is apparent on the recession of glaciers (Valdiya, 1988), which is one of the climatic sensitive environmental indicators, and serves as a measure of the natural variability of climate of mountains over long time scales (Beniston et al., 1997). However no comprehensive long-term data on CO2 levels are available. The consumption of CO2 by photosynthesis on land is about 120 x 1015 g dry organic matter/year, which is equivalent to about 54 x 1015gC/yr (Leith and Whittaker, 1975). Variations in the atmospheric CO2 content on land are mainly due to the exchange of CO2 between vegetation and the atmosphere (Leith, 1963; Baumgartner, 1969). The process in this exchange is photosynthesis and respiration. The consumption of CO2 by the living plant material is balanced by a corresponding production of CO2 during respiration of the plants themselves and from decay of organic material, which occurs mainly in the soil through the activity of bacteria (soil respiration). The release of CO2 from the soil depends on the type, structure, moisture and temperature of the soil. The CO2 concentration in soil can be 1000 times higher than in air (Enoch and Dasberg, 1971). Due to these processes, diurnal variations in the atmospheric CO2 contents on ground level are resulted. High mountain ecosystems are considered vulnerable to climate change (Beniston, 1994; Grabherr et al., 1995; Theurillat and Guisan, 2001). The European Alps experienced a 20 C increase in annual minimum temperatures during the twentieth century, with a marked rise since the early 1980s (Beniston et al., 1997). Upward moving of alpine plants has been noticed (Grabherr et al., 1994; Pauli et al., 2001), community composition has changed at high alpine sites (Keller et al., 2000), and treeline species have responded to climate warming by invasion of the alpine zone or increased growth rates during the last decades (Paulsen et al., 2000). Vegetation at glaciers fronts is commonly affected by glacial fluctuations (Coe, 1967; Spence, 1989; Mizumo, 1998). Coe (1967) described vegetation zonation, plant colonization and the distribution of individual plant species on the slopes below the Tyndall and Lewis glaciers. Spence (1989) analyzed the advance of plant communities in response to the re treat of the Tyndall and Lewis glaciers for the period 1958- 1984. Mizumo (1998) addressed plant communities in response to more recent glacial retreat by conducting field research in 1992, 1994, 1996 and 1997. The studies illustrated the link between ice retreat and colonization near the Tyndall and Lewis glaciers. The concern about the future global climate warming and its geoecological consequences strongly urges development and analysis of climate sensitive biomonitoring systems. The natural elevational tree limit is often assumed to represent an ideal early warming line predicted to respond positionally, structurally and compositionally even to quite modest climate fluctuations. Several field studies in different parts of the world present that climate warming earlier in the 20th century (up to the 1950s 1960s) has caused tree limit advances (Kullman, 1998). Purohit (1991) also reported upward shifting of species in Garhwal Himalaya. The Himalayan mountain system is a conspicuous landmass characterised by its unique crescent shape, high orography, varied lithology and complex structure. The mountain system is rather of young geological age through the rock material it contains has a long history of sedimentation, metamorphism and magmatism from Proterozoic to Quaternary in age. Geologically, it occupies a vast terrain covering the northern boundary of India, entire Nepal, Bhutan and parts of China and Pakistan stretching from almost 720 E to 960 E meridians for about 2500 km in length. In terms of orography, the geographers have conceived four zones in the Himalaya across its long axis. From south to north, these are (i) the sub-Himalaya, comprising low hill ranges of Siwalik, not rising above 1,000 m in altitude; (ii) the Lesser Himalaya, comprising a series of mountain ranges not rising above 4000 m in altitude; (iii) the Great Himalaya, comprising very high mountain ranges with glaciers, rising above 6,000 m i n altitude and (iv) the Trans-Himalaya, Comprising very high mountain ranges with glaciers. The four orographic zones of the Himalaya are not strictly broad morpho-tectonic units though tectonism must have played a key role in varied orographic attainments of different zones. Their conceived boundaries do not also coincide with those of litho-stratigraphic or tectono-stratigraphic units. Because of the involvement of a large number of parameters of variable nature, the geomorphic units are expected to be diverse but cause specific, having close links with mechanism and crustal movements (Ghosh, et al., 1989). Soil is essential for the continued existence of life on the planet. Soil takes thousands of years to form and only few years to destroy their productivity as a result of erosion and other types of improper management. It is a three dimensional body consisting of solid, liquid and gaseous phase. It includes any part of earths crust, which through the process of weathering and incorporation of organic matter has become capable in securing and supporting plants. Living organisms and the transformation they perform have a profound effect on the ability of soils to provide food and fiber for expanding world population. Soils are used to produce crops, range and timber. Soil is basic to our survival and it is natures waste disposal medium and it serves as habitats for varied kinds of plants, birds, animals, and microorganisms. As a source of stores and transformers of plant nutrients, soil has a major influence on terrestrial ecosystems. Soil continuously recycles plant and animal remains , and they are major support systems for human life, determining the agricultural production capacity of the land (Anthwal, 2004). Soil is a natural product of the environment. Native soil forms from the parent material by action of climate (temperature, wind, and water), native vegetation and microbes. The shape of the land surface affects soil formation. It is also affected by the time it took for climate, vegetation, and microbes to create the soil. Soil varies greatly in time and space. Over time-scales relevant to geo-indicators, they have both stable characteristics (e.g. mineralogical composition and relative proportions of sand, silt and clay) and those that respond rapidly to changing environmental conditions (e.g. ground freezing). The latter characteristics include soil moisture and soil microbiota (e.g. nematodes, microbes), which are essential to fluxes of plant nutrients and greenhouse gases (Peirce, and Larson, 1996.). Most soils resist short-term climate change, but some may undergo irreversible change such as lateritic hardening and densification, podsolization, or large-scale erosion. Chemical degradation takes place because of depletion of soluble elements through rainwater leaching, over cropping and over grazing, or because of the accumulation of salts precipitated from rising ground water or irrigation schemes. It may also be caused by sewage containing toxic metals, precipitation of acidic and other airborne contaminants, as well as by persistent use of fertilizers and pesticides (Page et al., 1986). Physical degradation results from land clearing, erosion and compaction by machinery (Klute, 1986). The key soil indicators are texture (especially clay content), bulk density, aggregate stability and size distribution, and water-holding capacity (Anthwal, 2004). Soil consists of 45% mineral, 25% water, 25% air and 5% organic matter (both living and dead organisms). There are thousands of different soils throughout the world. Soil are classified on the basis of their parent material, texture, structure, and profile There are five key factors in soil formation: i) type of parent material; ii) climate; iii) overlying vegetation; iv) topography or slope; and v) time. Climate controls the distribution of vegetation or soil organisms. Together climate and vegetation/soil organisms often are called the active factors of soil formation (genesis). This is because, on gently undulating topography within a certain climatic and vegetative zone a characteristic or typical soil will develop unless parent material differences are very great (Anthwal, 2004). Thus, the tall and mid-grass prairie soils have developed across a variety of parent materials. Soil structure comprises the physical constitution of soil material as expressed by size, shape, and arrangement of solid particles and voids (Jongmans et al., 2001). Soil structure is an important soil property in many clayey, agricultural soils. Physical and chemical properties and also the nutrient status of the soil vary spatially due to the changing nature of the climate, parent material, physiographic position and vegetation (Behari et al., 2004). Soil brings together many ecosystem processes, integrating mineral and organic processes; and biological, physical and chemical processes (Arnold et al., 1990, Yaalon 1990). Soil may respond slowly to environmental changes than other elements of the ecosystem such as, the plants and animal do. Changes in soil organic matter can also indicate vegetation change, which can occur quickly because of climatic change (Almendinger, 1990). In high altitudes, soils are formed by the process of solifluction. Soils on the slopes above 300 are generally shallow due to erosion and mass wasting processes and usually have very thin surface horizons. Such skeletal soils have median to coarse texture depending on the type of material from which they have been derived. Glacial plants require water, mineral resources and support from substrate, which differ from alpine and lower altitude in many aspects. The plant life gets support by deeply weathered profile in moraine soils, which develops thin and mosaic type of vegetation. Most of the parent material is derived by mechanical weathering and the soils are rather coarse textured and stony. Permafrost occurs in many of the high mountains and the soils are typically cold and wet. The soils of the moraine region remain moist during the summer because drainage is impeded by permafrost (Gaur, 2002). In general, the north facing slopes support deep, moist and fertile soils. The south facing slopes, on the other hand, are precipitous and well exposed to denudation. These soils are shallow, dry and poor and are often devoid of any kind of regolith (Pandey, 1997). Based on various samples, Nand et al., (1989) finds negative correlation between soil pH and altitude and argues that decrease in pH with the increase in elevation is possibly accounted by high rainfall which facilitated leaching out of Calcium and Magnesium from surface soils. The soils are invariably rich in Potash, medium in Phosphorus and poor in Nitrogen contents. However, information on geo-morphological aspects, soil composition and mineral contents of alpine and moraine in Garhwal Himalaya are still lacking. Present investigation was aimed to carry out detail observations on soil composition of the alpine and moraine region of Garhwal Himalaya. 4.1. OBSERVATIONS As far as the recordings of abiotic environmental variables of morainic and alpine ecosystems of Dokriani Bamak are concerned, the atmospheric carbon dioxide and the physical and chemical characteristics of the soil were recorded under the present study. As these are important for the present study. 4.1.1. Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide Diurnal variations in the atmospheric CO2 were recorded at Dokriani Bamak from May 2005- October 2005. Generally the concentration of CO2 was higher during night and early morning hours (0600-0800) and lower during daytime. However, there were fluctuations in the patterns of diurnal changes in CO2 concentration on daily basis. In the month of May 2005, carbon dioxide concentration ranged from a minimum of 375Â µmol mol-1 to a maximum of 395Â µmol mol-1. When the values were averaged for the measurement days the maximum and minimum values ranged from 378Â µmol mol-1 to 388Â µmol mol-1. A difference of 20Â µmol mol-1 was found between the maximum and minimum values recorded for the measurement days. When the values were averaged, a difference of 10Â µmol mol-1 was observed between maximum and minimum values. During the measurement period, CO2 concentrations varied from a minimum of 377ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1 at 12 noon to a maximum of 400ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1 at 0800 hrs in the month of June, 2005. When the CO2 values were averaged for 6 days, the difference between the minimum and maximum values was about 23ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1. In the month of July, levels of carbon dioxide concentrations ranged from a minimum of 369ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1 to a maximum of 390ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1. When the values of the carbon dioxide concentrations for the measuring period were averaged, the difference between the minimum and maximum values was about 21ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1. Carbon dioxide concentration ranged from a minimum of 367ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1 to a maximum of 409ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1 during the month of August. When the values of carbon dioxide were averaged for the measurement days, the difference in the minimum and maximum values was about 42ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1. During the measurement period (September), CO2 concentrations varied from a minimum of 371ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1 at 12 noon to a maximum of 389ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1 at 0600 hrs indicating a difference of 18ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1 between the maximum and minimum values. When the values of the measurement days were averaged the minimum and maximum values ranged from 375ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1 to 387ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1 and a difference of 12ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1 was recorded. During the month of October, carbon dioxide levels ranged from a minimum of 372ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1 at 1400 hrs to a maximum of 403ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1 at 2000 hrs indicating a difference of 31ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1. When the values were averaged, the carbon dioxide levels ranged from a minimum of 376ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1 to a maximum of 415ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1.A difference in the minimum and maximum values was found to be 39Â µmol mol-1 when the values were averaged for the measurements days. In the growing season (May-October) overall carbon dioxide concentration was recorded to be highest in the month of June and seasonally it was recorded highest during the month of October 4.1.2. A. Soil Physical Characteristics of Soil Soil Colour and Texture Soils of the study area tend to have distinct variations in colour both horizontally and vertically (Table 4.1). The colour of the soil varied with soil depth. It was dark yellowish brown at the depth of 10-20cm, 30-40cm of AS1 and AS2, brown at the depth of 0-10cm of AS1 and AS2 and yellowish brown at the depths of 20-30cm, 40-50cm, 50-60cm of AS1 and AS2). Whereas the soil colour was grayish brown at the depths of 0-10cm, 30-40cm, 50-60cm of MS1 and MS2, dark grayish brown at the depths of 10-20cm, 20-30cm of MS1 and MS2 and brown at the depth of 40-50cm of both the moraine sites (MS1 and MS2). Soil texture is the relative volume of sand, silt and clay particles in a soil. Soils of the study area had high proportion of silt followed by sand and clay (Table 4.2). Soil of the alpine sites was identified as silty loam category, whereas, the soil of the moraine was of silty clayey loam category. Soil Temperature The soil temperature depends on the amount of heat reaching the soil surface and dissipation of heat in soil. Figure 4.2 depicts soil temperature at all the sites in the active growth period. A maximum (13.440C) soil temperature was recorded during the month of July and minimum (4.770C) during the month of October at AS1. The soil temperature varied between 5.10C being the lowest during the month of October to 12.710C as maximum during the month of August at AS2. Soil temperature ranged from 3.240C (October) to 11.210C (July) at MS1. However, the soil temperature ranged from 3.40C (October) to 12.330C (July) at MS2. Soil Moisture (%) Moisture has a big influence on soils ability to compact. Some soils wont compact well until moisture is 7-8%. Â  Likewise, wet soil also doesnt compact well. The mean soil water percentage (Fig. 4.3) in study area fluctuated between a maximum of 83% (AS1) to a minimum of 15% (AS2). The values of soil water percentage ranged from a minimum of 8% (MS2) to a maximum of 80% (MS1). Soil water percentage was higher in the month of July at AS1 and during August at MS1 (. During the month of June, soil water percentage was recorded minimum in the lower depth (50-60cm) at both the sites. Water Holding Capacity (WHC) The mean water holding capacity of the soil varied from alpine sites to moraine sites (Table 4.4). It ranged from a maximum of 89.66% (August) to a minimum of 79.15% (May) at AS1. The minimum and maximum values at AS2 were 78.88% (May) to 89.66% (August), respectively. The maximum WHC was recorded to be 84.61 % during the month of September on upper layer (0-10 cm) at MS1 and minimum 60.36% during the month of May in the lower layer (50-60cm) at MS1. At MS2, WHC ranged from 60.66% (May) to 84.61% (September). However, maximum WHC was recorded in upper layers at both the sites of alpine and moraine. Soil pH The soil pH varied from site to site during the course of the present study (Table 4.5). Mean pH values of all the sites are presented in Figure 4.4 The soil of the study area was acidic. Soil of the moraine sites was more acidic than that of the alpine sites. Soil pH ranged from 4.4 to 5.3 (AS1), 4.5 to 5.2 (AS2), 4.9 to 6.1 (MS1) and 4.8 to 5.7 (MS2). 4.1.2 B. Chemical Characteristics of Soil Organic Carbon (%): Soil organic carbon (SOC) varied with depths and months at both the alpine and moraine sites (Table 4.6). High percentage of organic carbon was observed in the upper layer of all sites during the entire period of study. Soil organic C decreased with depth and it was lowest in lower layers at all the sites. Soil organic carbon was maximum (5.1%) during July at AS1 because of high decomposition of litter, while it was minimum (4.2%) during October due to high uptake by plants in the uppermost layer (0-10 cm). A maximum (5.0%) SOC was found during the month of July and minimum (4.1%) during October at AS2. At the moraine sites, maximum (3.58%, 3.73%) SOC was found during June and minimum (1.5% and 1.9%) during August at MS1 and MS2 respectively. Phosphorus (%): A low amount of phosphorus was observed from May to August which increased during September and October. The mean phosphorus percentage ranged from 0.02 Â ± 0.01 to 0.07 Â ± 0.03 at AS1 and AS2. It was 0.03Â ±0.01 to 0.03Â ±0.02 at MS1 and MS2. Maximum percentage of phosphorus was estimated to be 0.09 in the uppermost layer (0-10 cm) during October at AS1. The lower layer (40-50 cm) of soil horizon contained a minimum of 0.01% phosphorus during September at AS1 and AS2. In the moraine sites (MS1 and MS2), maximum phosphorus percentage of 0.03 Â ±0.01 was estimated in the upper layers (0-10, 10-20, 20-30 cm) while it was found to be minimum (0.02Â ±0.01) in the lower layers (30-40 cm). Overall, a decreasing trend in amount of phosphorus was found with depth in alpine as well as moraine sites Potassium (%): A decline in potassium contents was also observed with declining depth during the active growing season. Maximum value of potassium was found in the uppermost layer (0-10 cm) at all the sites. The mean values ranged from 0.71Â ±0.02 to 46Â ±0.06 at AS1 while it was 0.71Â ±0.02 to 0.47Â ±0.05 at AS2. In the moraine sites the values ranged from a minimum of 0.33 Â ±0.06 to a maximum of 0.59Â ±0.05 in the MS1 and from 0.59Â ±0.05 to 0.32Â ±0.06 at MS2. In the upper layer of soil horizon (0-10 cm), maximum value of 0.74 %, 0.75% of potassium was observed during the month of July at AS1 and AS2. While the values were maximum in the month of October at moraine sites MS1 and MS2 having 0.66% and 0.65% respectively Nitrogen (%): Highest percentage of nitrogen was found in the upper layers at all the sites. Maximum percentage of nitrogen were found during the month of July-August (0.25%, 0.25 and 0.26%, 0.25%) at AS1 and AS2, respectively. Maximum values of 0.18% and 0.15% respectively were found during the month of June at the moraine sites MS1 and MS2. The nitrogen percentage ranged from 0.23Â ±0.02 to 0.04Â ±0.01% at AS1. However, it ranged from a minimum of 0.05Â ±0.01 to 0.24Â ±0.02% at AS2. The nitrogen percentage ranged from a minimum of 0.03Â ±0.01, 0.02Â ±0.04% to a maximum of 12Â ±0.03, 13Â ±0.01%, respectively at MS1 and MS2 Overall, a decreasing trend was noticed in the nitrogen percentage with depth at both the alpine and moraine sites. 4.2. DISCUSSION Soil has a close relationship with geomorphology and vegetation type of the area (Gaur, 2002). Any change in the geomorphological process and vegetational pattern influences the pedogenic processes. However, variability in soil is a characteristic even within same geomorphic position (Gaur, 2002). Jenney (1941) in his discussion on organisms as a soil forming factors treated vegetation both as an independent and as dependent variable. In order to examine the role of vegetation as an independent variable, it would be possible to study the properties of soil as influenced by vegetation while all other soil forming factors such as climate, parent material, topography and time are maintaining at a particular constellation. Many soil properties may be related to a climatic situation revealing thousand years ago (e.g. humid period during late glacial or the Holocene in the Alps and Andes (Korner, 1999). The soil forming processes are reflected in the colour of the surface soil (Pandey, 1997). The combination of iron oxides and organic content gives many soil types a brown colour (Anthwal, 2004). Many darker soils are not warmer than adjacent lighter coloured soils because of the temperature modifying effect of the moisture, in fact they may be cooler (Pandey, 1997). The alpine sites of the resent study has soil colour varying from dark yellowish brown/yellowish brown to brown at different depths. Likewise, at the moraine sites, the soil colour was dark grayish brown/grayish brown to brown. The dark coloured soils of the moraine and alpine sites having high humus contents absorb more heat than light coloured soils. Therefore, the dark soils hold more water. Water requires relatively large amount of heat than the soil minerals to raise its temperature and it also absorbs considerable heat for evaporation. At all sites, dark colour of soil was found due to high organic contents by the addition of litter. Soil texture is an important modifying factor in relation to the proportion of precipitation that enters the soil and is available to plants (Pandey, 1997). Texture refers to the proportion of sand, silt, and clay in the soil. Sandy soil is light or coarse-textured, whereas, the clay soils are heavy or fine-textured. Sand holds less moisture per unit volume, but permits more rapid percolation of precipitated water than silt and clay. Clay tends to increase the water-holding capacity of the soil. Loamy soils have a balanced sand, silt, and clay composition and are thus superior for plant growth (Pidwirny, 2004). Soil of the alpine zone of Dokriani Bamak was silty predominated by clay and loam, whereas the soil of moraine zone was silty predominated by sand and clay. There is a close relationship between atmospheric temperature and soil temperature. The high organic matter (humus) help in retaining more soil water. During summers, high radiations with greater insulation period enhance the atmospheric temperature resulted in the greater evaporation of soil water. In the monsoon months (July-August) the high rainfall increased soil moisture under relative atmospheric and soil temperature due to cloud-filter radiations (Pandey, 1997). Owing to September rainfall, atmospheric and soil temperatures decreased. The soil moisture is controlled by atmospheric temperature coupled with absorption of water by plants. During October, occasional rainfall and strong cold winds lower down the atmospheric temperature further. The soil temperature remains more or less intact from the outer influence due to a slight frost layer as well as vegetation cover. Soil temperature was recorded low at the moraine sites than the alpine sites. During May, insulation period in creases with increase in the atmospheric and soil temperature and it decreases during rainfall. The increasing temperature influences soil moisture adversely and an equilibrium is attained only after the first monsoon showers in the month of June which continued till August. Donahue et al. (1987) stated that no levelled land with a slope at right angle to the Sun would receive more heat per soil area and will warm faster than the flat surface. The soil layer impermeable to moisture have been cited as the reason for treelessness in part of the tropics, wherein its absence savanna develops (Beard, 1953). The resulting water logging of soil during the rainy season creates conditions not suitable for the growth of trees capable of surviving the dry season. The water holding capacity of the soil is determined by several factors. Most important among these are soil texture or size of particles, porosity and the amount of expansible organic matter and colloidal clay (Pandey, 1997). Water is held as thin film upon the surface of the particles and runs together forming drops in saturated soils, the amount necessarily increases with an increase in the water holding surface. Organic matter affects water contents directly by retaining water in large amount on the extensive surfaces of its colloidal constituents and also by holding it like a sponge in its less decayed portion. It also had an indirect effect through soil structure. Sand particles loosely cemented together by it, hence, percolation is decreased and water-holding capacity increased. Although fine textured soil can hold more water and thus more total water holding capacity but maximum available water is held in moderate textured soil. Porosity in soil consists of that portion of the soil volume not occupied by solids, either mineral or organic material. Under natural conditions, the pore spaces are occupied at all times by air and water. Pore spaces are irregular in shape in sand than the clay. The most rapid water and air movement is observed in sands than strongly aggregated soils. The pH of alpine sites ranged from 4.4 to 5.3 and it ranged from 4.8 to 6.1 in moraine sites of Dokriani Bamak. It indicated the acidic nature of the soil. The moraine sites were more acidic than the alpine sites. Acidity of soil is exhibited due to the presence of different acids. The organic matter and nitrogen contents inhibit the acidity of soil. The present observations pertaining to the soil pH (4.4 to 5.3 and 4.8 to 6.1) were more or less in the same range as reported for other meadows and moraine zones. Ram (1988) reported pH from 4.0-6.0 in Rudranath and Gaur (2002) on Chorabari. These pH ranges are lower than the oak and pine forests of lower altitudes of Himalayan region as observed by Singh and Singh, 1987 (pH:6.0-6.3). Furthermore, pH increased with depth. Bliss (1963) analyzed that in all types of soil, pH was low in upper layers (4.0-4.30) and it increased (4.6-4.9) in lower layer at New Hampshire due to reduction in organic matter. Das et al. (1988) reported the simil ar results in the sub alpine areas of Eastern Himalayas. All these reports support the present findings on Dokriani Bamak strongly. A potent acidic soil is intensively eroded and it has lower exchangeable cation, and possesses least microbial activity (Donahue et al., 1987). Misra et al., 1970 also observed higher acidity in the soil in the region where high precipitation results leaching. Koslowska (1934) demonstrated that when plants were grown under conditions of known pH, they make the culture medium either more acidic or alkaline and that this property differed according to the species. Soil properties may ch

Descriptive Essay - Our Mountain Cabin -- Descriptive Essay, Descriptiv

Our Mountain Cabin The ruckus from the bottom of the truck is unbearable, because of the noise and excessive shaking. As we slowly climbed the mountain road to reach our lovely cabin, it seemed almost impossible to reach the top, but every time we reached it safely. The rocks and deep potholes shook the truck and the people in it, like a paint mixer. Every window in the truck was rolled down so we could have some leverage to hold on and not loose our grip we needed so greatly. The fresh clean mountain air entered the truck; it smelt as if we were lost: nowhere close to home. It was a feeling of relief to get away from all the problems at home. The road was deeply covered with huge pines and baby aspen trees. Closely examining the surrounding, it looks as if it did the last time we were up here. We slowly crept around the corner, finally sneaking a peek at our cabin. As I hopped out of the front seat of the truck, a sharp sense of loneliness came over me. I looked around and saw nothing but the leaves on the trees glittering from the constant blowing wind. Catching myself standing staring around me at all the beautiful trees, I noticed that the trees have not changed at all, but still stand tall and as close as usual. I realized that the trees surrounding the cabin are similar to the being of my family: the feelings of never being parted when were all together staying at our cabin. As I walked closer to the cabin, which has been abandoned since last summer, I noticed certain materials are stored away, for the winter, such as the grill, which is taken off the hinges around the fire pit, and put underneath the cabin deck. The canoe is upside down and tightly snugged underneath the cabin deck. I also noticed the picnic tab... ...ing used to them not living with me for college, I've realized that the cabin reassures the family bond, we have so greatly between each other, and gives the family hope that we can always have a place where the family, as one, is welcomed. Although we live in different cities, this place gives me the belief that my family will always be there. When the whole family is up at the cabin, it seems as if nothing has changed, as if the pine trees have not grown apart, or any taller. Th pine trees drop their children (pinecones) right next to the parent, never being able to leave. This symbolizes the feeling I get about my family while being up in the mountains at our cabin. We then turned off the driveway, making sure to roll down our windows, so we can breathe the fresh mountain air, at least until the next time we come back, and once again start the bumpy road home.

Network Security Essay

The infrastructure which encompasses the network solution and security considerations is a major consideration for your company. Considering that the company will be expanding from one (1) floor to three (3) floors in the very near future you, as the CIO, are responsible for the design of the infrastructure and security protocols. You have been tasked with designing a network that is stable, redundant, and scalable. In addition, speed and reliability are important considerations. Assumptions should be drawn regarding network usage in relationship to network services and resources. All the established criteria that were set at the onset should be adhered to within your plan. The network solution that is chosen should support the conceived information system and allow for scalability. The network infrastructure will support organizational operations; therefore, a pictorial view of workstations, servers, routers, bridges, gateways, and access points should be used. In addition, access paths for Internet access should be depicted. Additionally, the security of the network should be in the forefront of your design because protecting your data is a primary consideration. Section 1: Infrastructure Document 1. Write a four to six (4-6) page infrastructure document in which you: a. Justify and support the relationship between infrastructure and security as it relates to this data-collection and analysis company. b. Present the rationale for the logical and physical topographical layout of the planned network. c. Design a logical and physical topographical layout of the current and planned network through the use of graphical tools in Microsoft Word or Visio, or an open source alternative such as Dia. Note: The graphically depicted solution is not included in the required page length. d. Illustrate the possible placement of servers including access paths to the Internet, intrusion detection systems (IDS), and firewalls. Note: Facility limitations, workstations, databases, printers, routers, switches, bridges, and access points should be considered in the illustration. e. Create and describe a comprehensive security policy for this data-collection and analysis company that will: i. Protect the company infrastructure and assets by applying the principals of confidentiality, integrity, and availability (CIA). Note: CIA is a widely used benchmark for evaluation of information systems security, focusing on the three (3) core goals of confidentiality, integrity, and availability of information. ii. Address ethical aspects related to employee behavior, contractors, password usage, and access to networked resources and information. Section 1 of your assignment must follow these formatting requirements: * Be typed, double spaced, using Times New Roman font (size 12), with one-inch margins on all sides; citations and references must follow APA or school-specific format. Check with your professor for any additional instructions. * Include a cover page containing the title of the assignment, the student’s name, the professor’s name, the course title, and the date. The cover page and the reference page are not included in the required assignment page length. * Include charts or diagrams created in MS Visio or Dia as an appendix of the infrastructure document. All references to these diagrams must be included in the body of the infrastructure document. Section 2: Revised Project Plan Use Microsoft Project to: 2. Update the project plan from with three to five (3-5) new project tasks each consisting of five to ten (5-10) sub-tasks. The specific course learning outcomes associated with this assignment are: * Develop information systems-related activities to maximize the business value within and outside the organization. * Demonstrate an understanding of existing and emerging information technologies, the functions of IS, and its impact on the organizational operations. * Evaluate the issues and challenges associated with information systems integration. * Use technology and information resources to research issues in information systems. * Write clearly and concisely about strategic issues and practices in the information systems domain using proper writing mechanics and technical style conventions.

Positivism Theory Essay

Positivism, (also referred to as ‘empiricism’) is often used to indicate that this approach to understanding criminality is scientific. The term ‘positivism ‘ (or in its more sophisticated form â€Å"Logical Positivism†) is often used to refer to an approach that asserts it utilizes science or the scientific method (their version of science) to understand the causes of criminality and thus the solutions to solving it. Positivism is an epistemological position or a theory of knowledge which assets that science is based upon theories that have been induced from and only from empirical evidence or the evidence of the senses (hence the term ‘empirical’ or that which can be experienced by the senses). Positivists reject any evidence that cannot be objectively experienced or observed such as that derived from tradition, faith, magic, religion, philosophy or any other form of knowledge or belief that does not have an empirical basis. Thus they want to explain criminal behaviour by reference to causes that can be observed or measured. Causes have to be material and observable – biological positivists look at biological observables such as anatomical abnormalities, identifiable genetic or gene patterns, bodily movements etc. Psychological positivists will also look at biological observables but will add behavioural factors, child rearing practices and brain abnormalities that cause identifiable behaviour outcomes. Many modern scientists have virtually discredited positivism in favour of what we call the hypothetico-deductionist approach or a falsficationist approach. This approach begins with theoretical conjectures (or hypotheses) and then seeks to prove or disprove them by means of empirical evidence. However, whatever the differences in method both positivism and hypothetico-deductionism seek empirical evidence for their theoretical positions. Implicit in these approaches is the idea that the scientist is an objective disinterested observer of natural events with no preconceptions about them. In the case of physics these natural events or laws are said to be found in nature itself as, for example, in the study of such phenomena as the movement of the planets around the Sun, the effect of gravity on the tides and the phenomenon of the seasons created by the movement of the Earth around the Sun. In these cases the object of study is seen as governed by universal natural laws which the scientist has to discover. When this approach is applied in the human or social sciences we have to understand our object of study (i. e. human beings or societies) as also governed or regulated by rules that the scientist has to discover. Thus Biological Criminologists will use data from such sources as twin studies, family studies, genetic patterns, biochemical aspects and so on – anything that can be studied by means of ‘objective’, methods and which may throw up some biological explanation of that behaviour or a principle or a law that explains that behaviour. It follows that in positivist criminality, ‘criminals’ are identified as certain kinds Of human beings who are governed by events or natural phenomena that have been set in place by something external to them and, in a sense, beyond their control. Thus ‘criminals’ do not make decisions about their criminal behaviour they are, as it were, caused to behave in this way by factors that operate in a sense, ‘behind their backs’. Thus, so-called abstract views of human nature such as that they are rational and use reason in making choices about their actions have to be discarded as a cause of behaviour in favour of non-rational causes such as determination by such things as biological inheritance or forms of social conditioning or, in many cases, a combination of both (as in Eysenck). Positivists aim is to identify those with criminal tendencies – or those already classified as criminals and use them as their data base. Their goal is to ascertain what has caused their criminality and then to look for ways of ‘correcting’ such criminality or, even better, to ascertain those with tendencies for criminality (before hopefully they commit a crime) and to put some preventative measures in place. Biological positivists generally look for biological causes generally in genetic inheritance. A well know example is that of ‘Klinenfelter’s Syndrome’ where a study of known criminals identified was said to be an extra ‘y’ chromosome.