Tuesday, December 31, 2019

The Greek And Persian Empires - 1156 Words

Throughout the years, many historians have acknowledged that the classical era was a time when Greek and Persian Empires flourished. With that being said, from approximately 323-800 B.C.E., both the Greek and Persian Empire were experiencing periods of economic, political, and artistic growth. The Persians, like the Greeks, were Indo Europeans, and were located by the Mediterranean Sea, which consequently allowed Greeks and Persians to develop similarities. At this time, many emerging civilizations lacked communication with other societies. Consequently, this enabled many civilizations to established their own political systems, cultures, and religions. However, unlike other aspiring nations, the Greek and Persian Empires had interaction†¦show more content†¦The Greeks were also located near the Mediterranean Sea. Ancient Greek culture was known for its contributions to the architecture, science, mathematics, theatre and arts, and literature. The Greeks also made the first significant, fundamental steps in science. The Greeks developed specific scientific branches, such as zoology, biology, and anthropology. They were also known for controlling the Persian Empire after the Persian War. King Alexander the Great initiated a war with Persia, conquered and killed the last emperors. When they got ahold of Persians important city, Persepolis, they burned it down. After Alexander, Greek culture spread out throughout Persia and it was known as Hellenistic Era. (Lecture 10). Religion also separated the Greeks and Persians. Persians placed a great emphasis on ritual, and practiced religious autonomy or religious toleration. Also, Persia was known to have three distinct religions. However, Zoroastrianism was considered the primary religion in Persia, because it was the first monotheistic religion. This religion introduced the idea of a dualistic universe that focused on good versus evil and heaven and hell (Lecture 8). The Persians were also committed to having people convert to their religion. As for the Greeks, â€Å"They did not recognize a single, exclusive, all powerful God† (Bentley 212). Greeks believed in mythology and in many different gods, such as Zeus, Poseidon,

Monday, December 23, 2019

The Sociological Eye There Are Many Types Of Families

Through the sociological eye there are many different types of families. There is no formal definition of what a family is, but there are several different views that can give you an idea of what it may look like. Stereotypical families have become a commonality across American’s society. According to Lamanna, M., Riedmann, A., and Stewart, S. (2015) a stereotypical family, is a representation of several different types of families that are present in today’s society. What sets these families apart from each other is their structural composition such as kids/no kids, one parent, two parent, or even no parent or multigenerational families. Along with their structural composition they also differ between demographic features such as,†¦show more content†¦These types of families are all considered a family but, they do not share the same beliefs. In today’s society there are many varieties of families but none of these force the specificity of what to do as a family, or how to act like one. While growing up I was taught that not every family is the same but, I still had to be accepting. As time progressed throughout my childhood, I started to speculate what I could expect a family to be. My family consists of two opposite-sex parents and three children. Throughout my childhood, my family has never had a lot of money. In return, I had to grow up in poverty due to my parent’s lack of college education. Alleyne provides from the US Census bureau that the average annual income continues to be strongly affected by the educational status. Pg 6† Even though my parents have no college education, I have always had to live up to my parent’s expectations of attending college. Alleyne says, â€Å"both parental educational background and family income have a strong effect on students’ expectations in such a way that the higher parental education and higher the family income, the ore likely the students are to expect to earn a professional degree.† Pg 16. Similarly, I have always have been expected to obtain a professional degree although Iâ€⠄¢ve lived in low income. Personally, I have been shaped to believe that families vary significantly and consist of many different demographic features in which are

Sunday, December 15, 2019

Dickens’ Views on the French Revolution Free Essays

Dickens’ views on The French Revolution Revolutions have occurred since the first oppressed people got fed up with a tyrannical leader. It has been the cry of the downtrodden since the beginning of time. Revolution is a word that symbolizes hope for a better future. We will write a custom essay sample on Dickens’ Views on the French Revolution or any similar topic only for you Order Now It can be a dangerous thing because if not successful life for the common people might get worse than it originally was. Even if successful the new leaders can be as bad as those preceding. Dickens captures the essence of a revolution gone bad in his novel A Tale Of Two Cities. The intent of this short essay is to discuss and analyze Dickens’ treatment of the theme of revolution in A Tale of Two Cities. It will attempt to show you how Dickens changes his mind midway through the novel about whether or not the revolutionaries in France are better than their aristocratic predecessors. When the novel first journeyed into France, it was to a poor district in Paris by the name of St. Antonie. A barrel of wine had fallen from the back of a cart in front of a small wine shop owned by a monsieur Defarge. People from all around rushed to see what had happened. The people were so poor that the very chance to drink wine, even off the dirty street was too tempting to pass up. They drank out of cupped hands and even went as far as to squeeze wine from a rag into an infant’s mouth. Their hands were stained red by the wine. It is a pitiful and prophetic scene. It is prophetic in that later these same poor peasants whose hands are stained red with wine will have them stained red with the blood of the nobility, and the streets will run with the blood of a revolution as it does with the wine. The revolution in France is necessary for the good of the people and Dickens seems to be right behind the peasants. His views are expressed most clearly when he shows how uncaring the aristocrats were to the plight of the common people. A specific point of this is when he had the Marque de Evremonde say, after running over a small child, â€Å"It is extraordinary that you people cannot take care of yourselves or your children†¦ How do I know what injury you have done my horses. † (A Tale of Two Cities 112) Judging from how the aristocrat is portrayed, Dickens continues to support he peasants right up to the beginning of the revolution. Dicken’s sympathies shifts rather quickly from the mob of French patriot revolutionaries to the plight of the aristocrats and their families. In the time before the revolution any noble could have any commoner thrown in jail without reason or a trial, just on a suspicion, as was done to Dr. Manette by the Evremonde brothers. This did change after the revolution, when any person at all could be thrown in jail with a good chance of execution by La Guillotine for any reason at all. The aristocrats in particular had no chance at all, as is shown by this quote, â€Å"Let him be, he will be judged in Paris. † The response being â€Å"Judged, ay! , and condemned as a traitor. † (A Tale of Two Cities 259) Dickens has no love for the mob either. While describing their wild dancing and singing and murder in the streets, he does not speak as if he holds them in high regard. In one case in particular, he seems to really despise their actions and speaks out against them through the rational voice of the narrator, â€Å"There were no fewer than five hundred people, and they were dancing like five thousand demons. (A Tale of Two Cities 290) In closing, I reiterate the thesis statement, that things did not improve and in some cases got worse than before. In the long run it was best for the French people as a whole but Dickens is right when he implies that the French Revolutionary mob was composed mainly of animals like Madame Defarge whose interests lay with revenge rather than the improvement as a whole of their society. While it lasted, the French Revolution was one of the most barbaric periods in the history of the world. How to cite Dickens’ Views on the French Revolution, Essay examples

Saturday, December 7, 2019

Avocado Leaf Plasticity free essay sample

INTRODUCTION: Phenotypic plasticity, or differing phenotypes from one genotype in different environmental conditions, is a way for sessile organisms to adapt to changing environmental conditions (Valladares et al., 2007). Plasticity was expected to be abundant, however, it did not occur as often in nature due to resource limitations and environmental stress (Valladares et al., 2007). An experiment by Matos tested the phenotypic plasticity to light availability in shade and sun leaves of coffee trees (Matos et al., 2009). Their research indicated that compared [to] sun leaves, shade leaves had a lower stomatal density, a thinner palisade mesophyll, a higher specific leaf area, and improved light capture†¦ (Matos et al., 2009). The sun leaves were described as generally thicker with an enhanced quantity of palisade mesophyll (Matos et al., 2009). Our objective was the presence of phenotypic plasticity in avocado trees based on the differences in the morphology of shade and sun leaves. In our study, we asked whether there is a difference in surface area, length-to-width ratio, mass, specific leaf mass, and color between shade leaves and sun leaves in avocado trees. We will write a custom essay sample on Avocado Leaf Plasticity or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page We hypothesized that there would be no significant differences in surface area, length-to-width ratio, mass, specific leaf mass, and color between shade leaves and sun leaves. METHODS: We collected our seventy samples of avocado tree (Persea americana) leaves, in equal amounts of sun and shade leaves, at an avocado tree grove located north of Building 3 and University Drive at Cal Poly Pomona on Thursday, October 24, 2013 at 9:00 am. They were randomly and interspersedly collected throughout the grove. We split the grove into five areas, split into five teams of two, and was assigned to one of the five areas. Each team picked a number for the trees in their region and a random number was selected from a random number table to select a tree corresponding to that number. A random number table was used to pick the corresponding quadrant, branch, and leaf.  This process was done twice on each tree in the understory for shade leaves, and in the canopy for sun leaves. Each leaf was measured for its surface area, length-to-width ratio, mass, specific leaf mass, and color. Surface area was measured by a leaf area meter in squared centimeters. Length-to-width ratio was measured by measuring the length (vertically along the bridge of the leaf) and the width (horizontally on the widest part of the leaf) with a ruler in centimeters, and dividing the length by the width. Mass was calculated by a balance in grams. Specific leaf mass (thickness) was measured by dividing the mass by its surface area in grams per squared centimeter. Color was measured by having three reference leaves provided by the instructor, indicating light (L), medium (M), and dark (D) leaves and compared our collected leaves. After recording all of the data, these data were then input into a statistical program called StatCat to determine normality through a normality test. The data for surface area, length-to-width ratio, mass, and specific leaf mass for sun and shade leaves were both normal, therefore, we chose a paired sample t-test for all of them. A normality test was not needed for color for sun and shade leaves due to it being a nominal scale data. The number of light, medium, and dark shade leaves were tallied up according to color, and the same was done for the sun leaves. A contingency table was made in Excel, and used in StatCat to test our hypothesis. The paired sample t-tests were also done through StatCat, which then gave us the appropriate results to test our hypotheses. RESULTS: Shade leaves had a significantly larger surface area than sun leaves (t = -3.7313, P = 0.00069; Table 1). Shade leaves had a significantly larger length-to-width ratio than sun leaves (t = -2.7162, P = 0.01031). Shade leaves had no significant difference in mass than sun leaves (t = -1.4871, P = 0.1462). Shade leaves had a significantly smaller specific leaf mass than sun leaves (t = 5.82093, P = 1.5Ãâ€"10-6). Shade leaves were significantly darker than sun leaves (X2 = 18.417, P = 0.0001).

Friday, November 29, 2019

The Epidemiology Of Tuberculosis ( Tb ) Essay Example For Students

The Epidemiology Of Tuberculosis ( Tb ) Essay Epidemiology of TuberculosisWorld travel has become more commonplace and people are no longer destined to remain on a single continent. Travel’s ease and affordability has made the spread of disease easier. One of those diseases that is spread worldwide is tuberculosis (TB). Description of TuberculosisSince ancient times Tuberculosis has been present, also known as Consumption. Despite current advanced medical screenings, diagnostics, and treatment methods, approximately one-third of the world’s population has been exposed and is infected with the organism (Mandal, 2014, para. 2). Becoming infected with TB usually occurs following close proximity with an infected person for a lengthy period of time. CausesTuberculosis (TB) is caused by an infectious bacteria known as Mycobacterium tuberculosis. M. tuberculosis is a rod-shaped slow growing bacteria that is hydrophobic. It was first isolated in 1882 by Robert Koch and identified as an infectious disease (Mandal, 2014, para. 8). SymptomsIn active TB, any, all, or none of the following symptoms may be present: persistent cough, fatigue, weight loss, decreased appetite, fever, hemoptysis, and night sweats. In latent tuberculosis infections, the patient is not contagious and cannot spread the bacteria. Latent TB infection occurs when there is exposure but an immune response occurs which manages the bacteria by walling it off and causing it to be dormant in the body. If a LTBI is treated at this stage, a subsequent active TB infection can be prevented (Murphy Bernardo, 2013, para. 5). We will write a custom essay on The Epidemiology Of Tuberculosis ( Tb ) specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now Mode of TransmissionTuberculosis is transmitted via droplet contact, when someone with an active TB coughs, sneezes, talks, or laughs, very small droplets of saliva or mucous are expelled. .reatment regimen directly observed by a community health worker for at least the first two months. Other TB objectives of WHO include high-quality care for all with TB, reduce suffering and socioeconomic burden associated with TB, protecting vulnerable populations from TB, TB/HIV and multidrug-resistant TB, and to protect and promote human rights in TB prevention, care and control (WHO, 2015c).ConclusionWorldwide tuberculosis deaths each year are second only to HIV in number. There is an estimated need for eight million dollars annually to fund a full response to TB in low and middle income countries. More than fifty companies are involved in the development of improved TB diagnostics and there are fifteen vaccines currently in trials (World Health Organization Press WHO Press, 2014). While the number of TB cases is decreasing, there is more work to be done.

Monday, November 25, 2019

Essay Sample on Social Criticism in Oliver Twist

Essay Sample on Social Criticism in Oliver Twist Free sample essay on Oliver Twist: Charles Dickens wrote Oliver Twist in 1849 with the zeal of a reformer in order to expose the ugliness of material of the Victorian Age. He was a ruthless critic of the Victorian Society. A note of social satire runs through almost all his novels. Pickwick Papers was hilarious comedy still it exposed the corruption rampant in the election system and the general law, moral climate of the society. But with Oliver Twist Dickens almost emerged as a crusader against the social evils of his times. In Oliver Twist, Nicholas Nickleby, Bleak House, Hard Times and Little Dorrit, he flayed (highly criticized) the social institutions with devastating force. Edmund Wilson remarks that Dickens was of all the great Victorian writers probably most antagonist to the Victorian Age itself. Along with giving poetic shape to the better characteristics of English life, he also attacked the abuses in the society especially in the workhouse (poor and beggars dwelling), educational system, pawn-broken (shroff) shops, slums, delay in law offices, all the London Haunts of crime and pain. Dickens was the advocate of the downtrodden and the oppressed. He aroused the conscience of the public and he became the heart and conscience of England. He is the mast er of our sunniest smiles and our most unselfish tears, Lord Carlisle remarked. His age was an age of transition. The Industrial Revolution was rapid gaining power and England was changing from a country that was mainly agricultural to a country that was mainly industrial. Dickens criticizes the society in almost exclusively moral way. His criticism reminds us of the grave folds common more or less to all mankind. He was truly a Victorian and yet he is for all ages. In Oliver Twist, Dickens has presented the pathos of innocent childhood and protest against the abuses of powers, especially on the part of the governmental institution. He throws light on the workhouse system of those days in England. As the same time he has exposed the defects of the Poor Law of 1834 which aimed at abolishing begging and unemployment. The novel deals with the sad story of sorrows and struggles of an orphan boy and his ultimate union with well-deserved happiness. The first part of the novel presents the early childhood of Oliver in the workhouse and about his days of service as an apprentice. The later part of the novel deals with Olivers experience in London where he is caught in the net of a master criminal named Fagin. Dickens wants to show how crime is bred (brought up). The story describes how Oliver keeps his honesty and purity in the midst of sinful ways and how he finally finds the happy home amongst good and kind people. Through the story of Oliver, Dickens has exposed the corrupt class system prevalent in the 17th Century England. His zeal for social reform lag him to satirize the social institutions. The novel is an attack on the inhuman conditions of subsistence in the work houses, the idiocy of law and the unsatisfactory medical facilities. Dickens has also shown what it was meant to be a charity child. The indifference of the government and the people towards the welfare of children, specially orphans is epitomized in Olivers sufferings. The workhouse world is full of a bitter and pitiful comedy. The novelist attacks the demons of cruelty and callousness (kathortha). The workhouses were meant for helping the poor but in fact Oliver and other boys had to suffer slow starvation. The philosophers Managing the work house were very sage, deep, philosophical men. In their eyes the workhouse had become a regular place for public entertainment so they decided to set things right. They contacted with the waterworks to lay on unlimited supply of water and with a corn factory to supply small quantities of oatmeal and issued 3 meals of thin gruel (soup like) a day with an onion twice a week. The diet was given in such small quantity that the bowls never wanted washing. The boys polished them with their spoons till they shone (of shine) again. Olivers demand for more food was considered as a crime and as a punishment he was sent away to the undertakers (coffin seller) house. The sick and dying were not properly cared. This can be seen in the example of Olivers dying mother. The novel presents cruelty and meanness of Parish (jurisdiction) authorities. This can be seen in the portrayal of Mrs. Mann, Mr. Corney, Mr. Bumble, Mr. Mrs. sowerberry (undertaker) Mrs. Man, was incharge of Baby farm. Being a very great practical philosopher and a woman of wisdom and experience, she appropriated the greater part of the weekly stipend to her own use. The parish doctors were usually the cheapest and most inexperienced Doctors. This Parish authorities starved and ill treated poor under their care in order to make money for themselves. Mr. Mrs. Sowerberry ill treat Oliver so much that Oliver eventually runs away from their house. The death of the power is neglected. A poor woman dies of starvation and the clergymen comes after an hour, reads as much of the burial services as he can compress in 4 minutes and walks away. The unprotected, neglected, starved and beaten children were led to enter the world of crime. Fagin is the leader of a gang of young pickpockets who also deals in stolen goods. The young victims are The Dodger, Charle Bades, Tom Chitling and later Noah Claypole worked for him. All these boys are engaged in pick pocketing. Young boys of streets were trained by giving them tobacco and wine, and was making them think that the life of a criminal was something romantic. In the novel crime is shown to be ugly as well as miserable. Dickens has lighted up the dark places that his well-to-do readers did no exists or had not troubled to know. Social parasite like Fagin is the breader of the criminals he makes young thieves work for him and if they are caught, they suffer imprisonment and even death while he gets off scot-free. The description of the criminal activities of Fagin and his band is a realistic picture of the underworld of London of those days. People in general were addicted to smoking and drinking. In cities there were public houses which serves beer to the public and which were the breeding place of crimes and gathering places of criminals. We have the Three Cripples (hotel) as the specimen. Oliver had a drink at one such house while on hi sway to London from his native place. Sikes too had his food and drink at another house during the course of his flight. The residential quarters of the people of the lower strata of the society were shame for a government of the days. Those houses had practically no ventilations, they were dark and almost cell-like. The streets surrounding them were narrow, muddy and foul-smelling quiet favourable for outbreaks of epidemics. Fagins den illustrates this. There was a system of apprenticeship in trades. Boys were engaged as apprentices by traders. The workhouse authorities gave 5 pounds to Sowerberry for engaging Oliver as an apprentice. The traders used to treat the young apprentices m ost cruelly. We see Oliver running away from his master into the wide wicked world for the cruel treatment that he received at the Sowerberry household. Thus Oliver Twist serves as a mirror that shows the social condition of England of the early 19th century. In writing the novel Dickenss aim was not only to amuse the public but also to lightup the dark places that is well to do readers did not know exists or had not troubled to know. The life in London as revealed in this book opens the eyes of thousands born and bread in the same city. Dickens did not want that the one half of mankind should like in happy ignorance of how the other half dies.

Friday, November 22, 2019

How power and politics are related to organization, how does it work Essay

How power and politics are related to organization, how does it work in organization and how it effects organizations - Essay Example People who are holding high positions in organisations always tried to induce power play in company decisions. If they fail to utilise their positional power they try to amend things with industrial politics. Power play and politics in industrial organisations has resulted in gaining profits and in some cases losses. WorldCom and Enron are the cases where power and politics were misused and both companies had to face the consequences. When Enron, which was one of the top Fortune 500 companies, filed for bankruptcy in December 2nd 2001, the news came as a jolt to many of the investors. When the dubious account activities and scandal in Enron were revealed it came as a shock to the investors. US president George W. Bush had assured them by terming Enron's case as a rotten apple in the healthy corporate system. Despite of president's assurances many high profiled companies collapsed. Enron Corp. was the result of merger between Houston Natural Gas and Internorth. There was a shift to unregulated energy trading markets from regulated transportation of natural gas. Enron was a Fortune 500 company and was in #7 in 2001 was deleted from New York Stock Exchange. According to the mangers of Enron who reviewed the accounts of the company, during California energy crisis Enron has kept undisclosed reserves of up to $1.5 billion in trading profits. Enron came under fire from politicians of price gouging. The hidden reserves would have doubled the Enron's reported profits. It is also reported that Enron manipulated reports on reserves to have steady profit growth to Wall Street and credit rating agencies. The executives also claimed that the reserves were held back and used to fulfil the political and financial ends. In 1990 Enron reported its total revenue as $10 billion and in the next subsequent ten years it grew by $101 billion. It emerged as one of the fast growing companies in the United States. The main reasons for its collapse is not due to the core energy operations but the company's new ventures in dot com sector and investments Internet and communication business. According to investigators of the security of exchange commission gone into investigate the case, have interviewed witnesses to come to a conclusion that the methods or practices violated the laws for doctoring quarterly earning refers to start cookie jar reserves. The existence of Enron reserves puts strange twist to it. The executives of Enron inflated profits and concealed losses with official balance sheet. Partnership in this scenario of reports that Enron has shown wrong accounts in December 2000, the company filed for bankruptcy protection but interviews with more than a dozen ex-Managers and Executives revealed that the Enron many a time paid the profits on trading to meet the needs of politicians and financiers. The major portion of the gains were Shown on paper only on long term contracts only had it been the cash that could have put off liquidity crisis that led to its collapse. As per one of the former Executives, before a few months of Enron bankruptcy, the reserves were depleted. It is common to use reserves to manage profits through it is unlawful. The former long time chairman and company's president chief executive were aware of the reserves and felt them proper. Judy Leon, Skilling's spokes

Wednesday, November 20, 2019

Social Awareness Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Social Awareness - Assignment Example The wife would rest her hand on her husband’s shoulder when she wanted him to stop so they could go inside a store. The husband would always let his wife enter a store first before him. Either of them would shake their head if they did not like the other’s suggestion. The non-verbal signals did not appear to make the interaction between the two of them difficult even without words. 4. Their non-verbal communication made it easy for me to think they are married. I think couples who are married are always close to each other. Couples who are not married do not just hold hands. They have their arms around each other’s waist or on each other’s shoulders. This is why I formed this impression about them very fast. 1. The next interaction I observed was in the grocery store. It was also noisy at this place. There were noises coming from the cash register, public announcement system, music and grocers. I see a lot of families today. It is a Sunday. I chose a family of three. The father was carrying a baby and pushing a grocery cart. The mother was holding a pen and checking off of a list. I heard the baby crying so I chose them to observe. 2. There were many signals for non-verbal communication I saw. The baby was crying and the father was moving the baby up and down his arm. I think this was his way to make the baby quiet. The baby did not stop. The mother was frowning. She got a pacifier from the baby bag and gave it to the father. I watched the father’s mouth form the word â€Å"Sshh†. I think the noise of the mall made the baby uncomfortable. The behavior of the baby affected the mother. She started choosing things faster. 3. The interaction was informal. I decided this because the woman and man stood close to each other. Also, the woman touched the man’s hand or shoulder many times. She passed grocery things to him quietly and he put them in the cart. They looked very comfortable with each other. 4. I quickly

Monday, November 18, 2019

Operation Iraqi Freedom Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Operation Iraqi Freedom - Research Paper Example The history of America's wars can aptly start from the defense of the New York city carried out by George Washington against the British colonizing army (Weigley, 1977, p.4). That defense transformed itself into a protracted war which finally gave America its independence (Weigley, 1977, p.15-17). From this war, up to 2002, America has been found to have â€Å"employed military force more than 220 times in its history, yet has declared war only five times† (qtd. In Secunda and Moran, 2007, p.4). It is not only these officially declared wars of America that come under the purview of this paper but the undeclared wars as well, in an attempt to place America's war in Iraq in the correct historical and political perspectives. That is to say that war is being discussed here is in its all formal and informal forms, not limited by technical definitions. And it is concluded that Operation Iraqi freedom is nothing but a continuation of America's war agenda at large, supported by econom ic interests more than anything else. After independence, the major war waged by America was the Spanish-American war (Secunda and Moran, 2007, p.5). Then came the first and second world wars and indeed the cold war (though not fitting into the conventional definitions of war) against the communist block that succeeded them, and which â€Å"lasted fifty years† (Secunda and Moran, 2007, p.5). ... ielding a higher moral ground than other nations (which is similar to the age-old notion of white man's superiority), that has eventually led to America being sarcastically called as the 'world police' by its critics (Khatib, 2006, p.180). The Korean and Vietnam wars, which were part of the wider canvas of the cold war, showed the world how much obsessively compulsive was America's urge to wipe out communism (Donaldson, 1996, p.3). And the Vietnam war ended up for the US as a total coup ditat of sorts (Donaldson, 1996, p.70). Even the Americans despised the Vietnam war and the US government had to withdraw from the war scene disgraced and defeated both on the war front and at home (Secunda and Moran, 2007, p.6). The US military intervention in Lebanon, Grenada and Panama city did not invite much global attention, but â€Å"the Persian Gulf war of 1990-91† turned out into a macabre television spectacle for the world (Secunda and Moran, 2007, p.6). This was the moment when the w orld started discussing America's real intentions in its wars, and even the national leadership came very close to admitting that what was really at stake for the US was the cheap and incessant supply of oil (Secunda and Moran, 2007, p.6). It was also observed that the United States went to war in Korea and Vietnam, among many other reasons, â€Å"to show the third world that the United States was the one nation willing and able to stand up to communism anywhere in the world† (Donaldson, 1996, p.70). And since the second world war, it was becoming clear that America wanted to be â€Å"the leader of the world† (Donaldson, 1996, p.192). In the Persian Gulf war of 1990, this became more evident. An added element of interest for America regarding the Gulf region was its need to oppose any â€Å"dangerous

Saturday, November 16, 2019

Art Deco Concepts and Ideas | History of Art

Art Deco Concepts and Ideas | History of Art Throughout history, man has observed and experienced numerous movements and births in the world of art and architecture that influenced life and dwelling. Some movements were mere fads that lasted several seconds in the larger scale of time, others were strong influencers that lasted beyond their years, either physically or in the minds and hearts of many. Art Deco, a movement that started in the early 1920s in the arts that translated immediately into architecture is undeniably one of the strongest iconic movements that effected the lives of many and has its dominant mark on the physical world. The movement still remains alive in various forms of pop culture reappearances and in actual physical standing buildings and structures and not as a movement in action, but simply in examples to remind people of a certain times allure. What sets Art Deco apart from other movements is its collectivity of several other movements and attempts in the world of art and architecture. The purpose of this paper is to identify and elaborate on the myriad of art and architectural styles that contributed into making Art Deco what it was/is. Also, since Art Deco was a dominant force made up of many successful styles, what made it last a relatively short period as a movement, yet some of its characteristics are used and found in subsequent styles still. The Beginning of Art Deco (a history): The birth of Art Deco was interesting in the sense that the movement started before the birth of the name Art Deco in 1968 where it was first used by Bevis Hillier as the title for his book on the decorative arts of the 1920s and the 1930s that are the actual years the movement belonged to. The Term originated from the distinguished exhibition of decorative and industrial arts held in Paris, France in 1925 called Exposition Internationale des Arts Decoratifs et Industriels Modernes. In terms of the concept and feel of the exhibition, The Paris exhibition is like a city in a dream, and the sort of dream that would give the psychoanalysts a run for their money (Vogue, London August 1925). The exhibition was a gathering pot where many artists and architects unveiled their works of art that later strengthened and inspired the concoction of the decorative motif style. The use of Art Deco as a label at that time was non-existent and the contemporary art was called Art Modernes in France a nd Modernistic art in the United States. Although numerous people think of the United States and American artists when it comes to Art Deco and the birth of Art Deco, the movement was actually birthed by European styles. The two chief countries that sparked the Art Deco motion were Germany and France. The movement was not a instant spark, it evolved quietly throughout the early 1920s and saw its climax at the Parisian exhibition, then it gradually saw its way across many countries especially the United States in a concentrated way which is why many people think of the Art Deco style as an American style. Defining Art Deco/Influences: Art Deco as a movement is almost impossible to define in a brief sentence or idea. The movement incorporated many elements, genres of design, and artistic/architectural movements that it becomes necessary to view and appreciate it as a large sum of minor components rather than a single entity. Some of the components that birthed Art Deco may even seem to clash or repel each other, yet, in reality they work harmoniously. For example, Germany and France in the immediate years post World War1 had different styles in art and architecture. The German approach was more towards Modernism, meaning having crisp and angular functionalism in design and an emphasis on clean geometry. Paris however had a style that was delightfully playful, a decorative style that is closest to the Art Nouveau Vernacular which was to be eradicated by its disciples. These two extremes are the two major movements that make up Art Deco as we know it, however, they are not the only movements or influences. At that ti me, the more lively style that is described as leisurely, comforting, and a representation of wealth arrived to the United States before the rigid German style thus helping the growth and spread of Art Decos decorative ways in the country. Along side the German modern style of design and the Art Nouveau movement, Art Deco barrowed influences and inspiration from many styles. Not only did Art Deco include many art or architectural styles, it was also influenced by historical aspects and futuristic ideologies. Deco was described as to contain elements from the ancient past to the distant future (Duncan, Alastair, 7). A past historical influence that is very evident in the style of Art Deco is the Ancient Pharaoh civilization and the Egyptian culture mania that overtook Paris after Tutankhamuns tomb discovery by Howard Carter in 1922. Combined with the mesmerizing Egyptian elements that were easily adopted as decorative motifs in Art Deco, more exotic inspirers played a role in influencing the style, such as Mayan temples, tribal African sculptures, the Ballets Russes, and Japanese lacquer-work. The decorative motifs of the Assyrian, Babylonian, and Sumer cultures also influenced and stimulated some Art Deco architects as did the Medieval and Byzantine architecture. Further more, classical structures and sculptures of the Roman and Greek cultures also played a part in the forming of Art Deco, however, the Art Deco architects were against the Beaux-Arts Neoclassicism, thus they adorned their classically based buildings and structures with modernized elements and figures of classical mythology in a playful strictly aesthetically decorative manner. Since Art Deco is not an instant reaction to another styles action, it truly had lesser rules in style than most other movements, and it probably had the most relaxed and forgiving rules when it came to re-interpreting another styles elements, or completely borrowing an element. For example, if an architect was commissioned by a client who is fascinated by maritime activity, and wanted to have elements of that show in the building, an Art Deco architect would design an art piece of a boat or an anchor in the exact same forms and colors from a decorative material and adorn the building with it. What makes this action possible and feasible is Art Decos strong dependency on Industrial design. The strong streamlined forms of industrial design and techniques of art creating through industrial commercial ways truly helped the Art Deco movement and added another very powerful component to the previously mentioned elements that make up the fabric of the movement. As previously mentioned, it seems that the components of Art Deco are countless, all equally stimulating and important in their own right. The French Rationalism style of building and the Art Nouveau movement in the early 1900s before the 1920s for example were important precursors of Art Deco. Auguste Perrets Rue Franklin apartment building, c.1902, which was extensively glazed and revolutionized the building techniques with the use of reinforced concrete works as a foreshadow of Art Deco and what was to come. The heavy ornaments on Perrets building work as a bridge from the more stylized floral style decorations to the ordered and less organic famous floral motifs of Art Deco such as the lotus leaves. Along side Art Nouveau, another powerful movement that influences many Art Deco buildings is Expressionism in both its industrial German style and the brick building Dutch style. The style of the Expressionist architecture in its emotional and beautifying methods is clearly visible in the Art Deco designs. Although the movement was prior to the First World War, it had a strong comeback in the 1920s and famous expressionist buildings such as Peter Behrens monumental glass and steel turbine factory, c.1908, served as a model and inspiration for Art Deco designs. The Exhibition hall by Hans Poelzig in Poznan, Poland, c. 1911, also worked as a muse and model for following Art Deco artists. In terms of the brick building expressionism, three major Dutch influencers of Art Deco were Johan Melchior van der Mey, Michel de Klerk, and Piet Lodewijk whose work included brick, glass, and concrete in a stylized structural and decorative manner that can be linked directly to Art Deco. Italian Futurist architect Antonio SantElia was another major influencer on the Art Deco movement although a few rare projects of his were built and the majority remained sketches on paper. SantElias Monza cemetery, 1912, is an example of his work where decorative designs and heavy use of ornamentation in glass and concrete may be found and linked to Art Deco. In the United States, the Chicago School of Architectures massive vertical steel skeleton buildings made in the Moderne style from 1875-1910 count as influencers of Art Deco. From that group, Louis Sullivan and his student Frank Lloyd Wright specifically are the two architects whose works most hold links and bridges to Art Deco. Frank Lloyd Wrights work included many heavily ornamented buildings both in the exterior and interior with sharp geometry and studied repeated patterns and motifs in brick and concrete that are very much Art Deco-esque such as the Midway Gardens in Chicago built in 1914. (first half) *In Addition to the prior information, the following outline titles will be discussed in the second half, which is the more theoretical part structural wise. Elements of the Art Deco style: The characteristics that make a design original Art Deco, and specific elements that art deco must attain. Examples of famous art deco buildings: The buildings, and the theories and messages behind them. Writers opinion and analysis: My own personal opinion on the movement the and theories behind the movement, also, why I believe the movement failed to live longer even thought it seemed ultimately powerful ( the answer to my proposed question).

Wednesday, November 13, 2019

The Theme of Heritage in “Everday Use” Essay -- Character Analysis, M

In her late twentieth-century short story â€Å"Everyday Use,† African-American writer Alice Walker contrasts the struggle between the main characters involving the recurring theme. The story takes place in a rural Georgia setting during the 1970s. The plot circulates around Mama, Maggie, and Dee. Throughout, heritage develops and remains a central theme revolving them. Each of these women in the Johnson family tries to stay true to heritage value. But different roles of heritage exist between each woman, so their ways of achieving this mission differs. The story â€Å"Everyday Use† exemplifies the various understandings and use of heritage through Mama, Maggie, and Dee. To highlight her heritage theme, Walker displays how the character Mama considers the name of Dee. Dee changes her name and Mama has a will of whether or not to use it. Throughout, Mama uses Dee and Wangero interchangeably. As David Cowart writes, Mrs. Johnson is confused and cannot commit herself to the new name. She tries to have it both ways, referring to her daughter now by one name, now by the other . . . (Cowart 1 of 7). As the narrator, Mama employs the new or original name for a reason. Carol Andrews observes that Mama administers Wangero when she is denying the view Dee has because unlike Dee she understands what the quilts represent. â€Å"Snatched the quilts out of Miss Wangero’s hands . . .† (â€Å"EU† qtd. in Andrews 3 of 4). Mama explains the connection of the name Dee to female ancestors. â€Å"You know as well as me, you was named after your aunt Dicie . . . I probably could have carried it back beyond the Civil War through the branchesà ¢â‚¬  (â€Å"EU† 89). Helga Hoel writes that Mama is amazed that Dee would give up her name, â€Å"for Dee was the name of her great-gran... ...e’s opposing view. On the whole, Alice Walker employs the characters Mama, Maggie, and Dee to illustrate the various understandings and customs of heritage. Mama, the narrator and mother, expresses her values through abundant genealogy knowledge and daughter interactions. The elder daughter, Maggie, emerges as a result of her Mama resembling prospective, and the ability for tradition to live on through her. Yet, universal influences cause Dee, the other daughter, to develop opposing outlooks. Presence of conflicting views fester between the Johnson women. To dispel opposition, Walker rightfully places certain views on a pedestal during the final scene. Many criticize the effects of society and setting on ideals the story capitalizes. The central idea suggests Walker, an African-American woman just like the main characters, struggled with concepts herself.

Monday, November 11, 2019

Ethics of Marketing to Schools in America Essay

Public schools across America are struggling with their budgets and looking to outside corporations for help. Conveniently, private corporations realize the potential buying power of students and have decided that elementary schools are the best channel to reach them. It has become routine for corporations to market there products in schools, and in exchange these schools receive various financial benefits. This new partnership has become the focus of much controversy as 80% of Americans feel that corporations should have no place in schools (). The two most cited concerns are the health of children and the growing commercialization of schools. This paper looks at this issue in detail by answering the following two questions. Is it ethical for corporations to market products in schools? What is the most socially responsible course of action for corporations to take? This paper will use a utilitarian and distributive justice framework to prove that marketing in schools is unethical and propose that the most ethical arrangement is to make schools commercial-free zones. This paper will also discuss the issue of corporate social responsibility through shareholder and stakeholder lenses to prove that there is a strong business case for corporations to? Children in schools are marketed to in a variety of ways. Schools can participate in incentive programs where a school receives funds to take part in a specific activity such as collecting box tops (). Some corporations offer free educational materials to schools that promote their corporate message. Pepsi encourages a â€Å"thirst for knowledge† on a popular textbook cover(). Each year over half of the students in schools in the United States receive free textbook covers(). McDonalds, Burger King and Dominos sponsor reading projects in schools with free meals(). Other schools receive free electronic equipment like computers and satellites for participating in programs like channel one. This is an arrangement where school receive free electronic equipment for having their students watch a 10 minute broadcast of which 2 minutes are corporate sponsored commercials (). All of these marketing techniques pose there own unique ethical dilemmas, however the most controversial type of marketing in schools today is the use of exclusive agreements. This is when corporations give schools a percentage of their profits in exchange for the right to be the sole provider of a product or a service(). The most prominent example of this is the soft drink company, Coca-Cola and their exclusive distribution rights with schools. As a result, Coca-Cola advertisements have become the most visible types of advertisements in schools today (). A US National School Health Policies study found that students could purchase soft drinks in 60% of elementary schools and 83% of middle schools (). Of these schools over 85% were under an exclusive contract with the Coca-Cola company (). For the aforementioned reasons the remainder of this paper will use the soft drink giant Coca Cola as a symbol to make it easier to understand the larger debate of marketing in elementary schools. A deontological framework can not determine whether this issue is ethical or unethical. In 1990 under $100 million was spent on advertising targeted at kids, just a decade later that number was up more than twenty times to over $2 billion (). This large increase in spending indicates that there is a strong motivation for corporations to market to youth. One way to determine if marketing in schools is ethical is to deconstruct these motivations through a deontological framework. The motivation for companies to market in schools could be a philanthropic opportunity to contribute to education. However, I do not believe this because companies like Coca-Cola make schools sign exclusive agreements, which means that they block competition and are profitable. I believe the main motive for companies to market to youth is to make money. Marketing to students in schools is an effective strategy as it reaps both short and long term rewards. Children in elementary schools have a lot of spending power. Kids ages 4-12 spend $40 billion each year (). Furthermore, these same kids influence $600 billion of household spending (). It is wise for companies to try to earn a share of this large market. Surprisingly, the sales of sodas in schools account for a miniscule slice of soda sales worldwide, less than 1 percent of soda’s 66billion dollar industry (). Clearly profit in the short run is not the main motivating factor for companies like Coca-Cola. Marketing in public elementary school promises long run benefits. Soft drink companies can create brand loyalty with their consumers at an early age. In other words, they foster and retain a captive audience for its products. If you consider the cutthroat competition among soft drink makers for customers, this brand loyalty becomes a vital business pursuit. A deontological framework can better help us deconstruct the ehics of marketing to youth purely for financial reasons. Specifically, this paper will employ some of W. D. Ross’ duties. It can be argued that marketing in schools violates the duty of non-malefiicence (to do no harm). Some children will substitute a nutritious meal for a sugar laden soda. That is harmful to their health. Marketing in schools also violates the duty of gratitude. It does not thank customers for their business by protecting their health. Instead, companies like Coca-Cola continue to aggressively market their unhealthy product to vulnerable youth. On the other hand, if one considers a corporation a person, then a corporation fulfils Ross’s duty of self-improvement by marketing in schools. It improves its own condition by increasing its profits in the short and the long run. Additionally, if a company honestly abides by the contract it signs with a school then it is upholding Ross’s duty of fidelity. The framework of deontology is inadequate to determine the ethics of marketing in schools because it presents us with conflicting duties and no hierarchy to put them into. There is an incompatible difference between the various duties. However, this situation did not become controversial simply because some believe that a corporation might have bad ethics, instead people are worried about the consequences of marketing in schools. A utilitarian framework shows us that marketing in schools is unethical. Marketing in elementary school is controversial because it offers many direct benefits to schools, but negatively impact students. Through a utilitarian framework this paper will deconstruct the pros and cons of the scenario to determine whether marketing in schools is ethical. This paper will conduct a cost-benefit analysis to determine what results in the greatest good for the greatest number of people. The main players that benefit in this scenario are schools, shareholders of the Coca-Cola company, and employees. All of these players benefit in financial terms. Vending machines are a valuable source of revenue for schools. They support programs that might otherwise go unfunded. Elementary schools have reason to be concerned about their finances, the state of California cut the elementary school budget by $10 billion dollars in 2003 (). If a school district signs an exclusive contract with a soft-drink company it can generate an additional $3 million per year (). School districts receive all of this money for virtually no additional work on there part. This is why the cliche that: â€Å"one day our schools will have all the money they need, and the Air Force will have to hold a bake sale to buy a bomber† could become true (). Company shareholders benefit in the long run if we assume that marketing in schools create brand loyalty among consumers. Company employees also benefit from the sales of sodas in schools, simply because their company is continuing to be competitive in the marketplace and provide work for them. However, the positive impact of selling sodas in schools impacts company employees considerably less than other players in this scenario, because these employees will not be receiving a pay raise as a result of this practice. While there are some positive effects of marketing in schools, I feel that the cons greatly outweigh the benefits. Students bear the burden of the negative effects of marketing in schools. Marketing to youth perpetrates problems of childhood obesity, materialism, eating disorders, violence, and family stress (). This is especially problematic because children are more cognitively immature and prone to believe that products marketed in school carry their school’s endorsement. For instance, if a school sells soda it signifies that it is acceptable to consume drinks that are high in sugar and have poor nutritional quality. A child’s health is not an acceptable trade-off for increased revenues. Childhood obesity is an epidemic in America. One-quarter of children in the United States are overweight which means they are at risk for lifelong health problems such as diabetes, high blood pressure, and cavities (). Competitors also suffer in this scenario because ? exclusive agreements’ create a monopoly on a school and therefore promote unfair competition and can charge whatever price they want. The difficulty of examining ethics from a utilitarian perspective is that is impossible to predict the future. It is not clear how much the financial revenue schools gain from executive agreements helps them to fulfill their purpose of teaching. It is also not clear how high the correlation is between marketing in schools and negative outcomes like obesity. What is known is that most of the negative consequences (and there are a lot of them) fall on the shoulders of the students. Having the burden of this issue fall on the shoulders of millions of students nationwide is bad for society as a whole. Children need to be educated in a healthy atmosphere so that they can become productive members of society one day. It is detrimental to the future if children are not provided with the best learning environment possible. The best learning environment possible is one that is free from commercial influences. The Distributive Justice framework shows that monopolies are unethical. According to John Rawls we should determine ethical dilemmas like whether marketing in schools is ethical by making the decision from behind a â€Å"veil of ignorance. † The distributive justice framework tries to ensure that the interests of the worst off in society are considered. According to this theory, students well-being should be put before business interests because students are the most vulnerable group in this scenario. However, there is an inherent conflict of interest within this framework. Corporations believe that marketing in schools is ethical because they are exercising their 1st amendment right to free speech. Everybody has this right, thus they are utilizing the equal liberty principle: equal rights to liberties as long as all may be provided such liberties. The problem is that not even all corporations are being provided the liberty of free speech. As previously mentioned Coca Cola has an exclusive agreement with 85% of elementary schools in America, this is just a nice way to say that Coca Cola has a monopoly on the elementary school market (). Companies that engage in exclusive distributive contracts are trying to block competitors. They can not justify this action on the ground that they need to do this to spur innovation, they want a monopoly so they can control the school market. Thus the difference principle comes into play because the inequality that these companies are creating in the market place needs to be addressed. The most ethical thing to do is to make schools commercial free zones. Marketing in schools is unethical. The most ethical thing to do is to make elementary schools commercial-free zones. Students should be able to pursue learning free of commercial influences and pressures. Eighty percent of adults in the United States agree that schools should be commercial-free zones as well (). While this may be the most ethical course of action, it seems highly unlikely as marketing in schools has become entrenched. Schools continually need more money and the government is unable to provide it. If marketing in schools must continue at the very least it should be regulated. It does not seem probable that the industry will regulate itself, so it should be subject to more government oversight. Right now there is very little the government has done to restrict marketing in schools. Laws forbidding it are perceived to be a breach of the 1st amendment. A study found that only nineteen states currently have statues or regulations that address school-related commercial activities (). This number includes states that have statues that encourage commercial activities. The government should establish an independent commission to regulate marketing in public schools. This agency should make regulations that encourage schools to provide a healthy learning environment for students. The agency could regulate the sale of foods high in fat, sodium, and sugars. For example, it could decide that vending machines can not be stocked with sodas; however juices (100%) and water could still be sold. There would be greater social acceptance of this issue if it were implemented more appropriately. The business case for CSR prevails. This paper has established that the most ethical thing for corporations to do is to stop marketing to students in schools, or at the very least to regulate what they market to children. If a company were to stop marketing to children for the aforementioned ethical considerations it would be following a normative line of reasoning. The company would be interested in doing the right thing for society with little regard for how the proposition would effect its own bottom line. While I would applaud its efforts on a moral basis, this would be a very poor reason to engage in Corporate Social Responsibility. There needs to be a business incentive for corporations to engage in Corporate Social Responsibility. A company has to be successful financially if it is going to survive in the long run. However, there is always a business case for corporate social responsibility with respect to companies that sell consumer products. In the long run the closer a company aligns with the values of society the more successful it will be. Good ethics and good business are mutually reinforcing. In this case 80% of society wants commercial-free schools or at least commercialism that is regulated. It is socially responsible for a company to accommodate the wishes of society because it is in their long run interest to build a good reputation. A company like Coca-cola may be more successful at recruiting, retaining, and engaging with its employees and customers if it demonstrates that it is socially responsible. Critics might argue that this is just mere â€Å"window dressing. † However, a good reputation leads to higher sales in the long run. Both shareholder and stakeholder frameworks would support the business case for corporate social responsibility in this scenario. Milton Freidman is an advocate of the shareholder theory which maintains that a companies corporate social responsibility is to maximize profits without breaking the law or violating basic rules of society. Coca-Cola is not breaking any laws by marketing in schools, it is merely exercising its first amendment right to free speech. It is also not violating any social norms, children get to choose whether they want to buy unhealthy products. On one hand it may seem that Freidman would say that corporations should continue to market in schools because they are making a profit and therefore helping society. However Freidman would agree that companies need to balance there short term gains against their long-term interest. In this case, Freidman would advocate for the restriction of marketing in schools because it is in the long run self-interest of the company because companies like Coca-Cola needs to reassure their customers that they care about them. . An alternative approach to corporate social responsibility is the stakeholder theory. This theory maintains that companies should balance the interests of all stakeholders involved. In this scenario the stakeholders would be the students (customers), parents, teachers, corporations, suppliers, employees, shareholders, and society. Students are harmed by marketing in schools because marketing is correlated with problems like obesity and materialism. On the other hand these same students benefit because their schools are receiving additional funding for programs. Parents suffer because they have less control over what their children are exposed to, and it could undermine their values. Shareholders may benefit in the short run from marketing in schools, but in the long run the values of the company must be aligned with society if it is going to succeed. Therefore, the stakeholder theory would advocate a business case for Corporate Social Responsibility as well: to limit marketing in schools. Marketing in schools is a complex issue with many players. In this case, students are the most important players because schools are public institutions and schools are supposed to make students a top priority. Marketing in schools can not stop on its own, it needs to be either strictly prohibited or at the very least limited by the government.

Saturday, November 9, 2019

Mahatma Ghandi, a Hero

Mahatma Gandhi For me, a hero is someone who tries to make the world a better place. Christopher Paolini said, â€Å"Without fear there cannot be courage. † I agree there has to be fear before there is courage. Gandhi turned his fear into courage and decided to try to make the world a better place and as a result India gained its independence. It took conquering his fears and being a courageous hero in a peaceful way to be the leader of Indian nationalism during British rule. Gandhi fought for Indian rights. Click any fact to locate it on the web.Click Wrong? to report a problem. Cancel Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was given the holy name Mahatma which means Great Soul. He was born on October 2, 1869 in Porbandar, India. In 1888, he sailed to England to study at the University College London and then the University of London where he studied Law. In 1893, he accepted a job in South Africa and in 1903 Gandhi opened a law firm in Johannesburg, South Africa. In 1906, Gandhi had his first protest in South Africa against anti-Indian laws and two years later he was imprisoned.In 1914, he returned to India where he became leader of the Indian National Congress (INC) supporting a plan using nonviolence to get independence. He was jailed from 1922 until 1924 for conspiracy. He was jailed again in 1930 for breaking India’s Salt Laws. In 1932, Gandhi started his famous â€Å"fast unto death† to protest British support of a new Indian constitution which gave India’s lowest classes, the â€Å"untouchables†, their separate political representation. Gandhi believed this would unfairly divide India's social classes and he believed in equality.In 1942, Gandhi began the nationwide â€Å"Quit India† movement. Five years later, India became independent from the British. Gandhi was assassinated by a Hindu fanatic on January 30, 1948 in Birla House in Delhi while at a prayer meeting. Early in his life, after seeing the misery of millions of hi s countrymen, thousands of them dying from starvation, Gandhi gave up all his money and spent his life helping the poor and the oppressed. He was the leader of the Indian nationalist group against the British rule and is commonly known as the father of his country.His strategy of a non-violent protest to get political and social progress has influenced many people. His program of peaceful non-cooperation with the British included boycotts of their goods and institutions which lead to arrests of thousands. In 1945, the British government began negotiations which ended with the formation of the two new independent states of India and Pakistan divided along religious lines. Gandhi was opposed to partition and fasted to try to bring harmony in Calcutta and Delhi. Ghandi once said, â€Å"In a gentle way, you can shake the world. This is exactly what he did. He made positive changes around him using peaceful ways. He also said, â€Å"I do not want to foresee the future. I am concerned w ith taking care of the present. God has given me no control over the moment following. † He did change his present; he changed what was happening during his life. He devoted his life to helping his countrymen gain independence and be treated as equals. This is why I believe Gandhi is a hero; he made the world a better place by being courageous, brave, a leader and a believer in being able to make a difference.

Wednesday, November 6, 2019

A Child Called It Essays

A Child Called It Essays A Child Called It Essay A Child Called It Essay A Child Called It is a first-person narrative of a severely abused child, Dave Pelzer, who has survived to tell his tale. This book is a brief, horrifying account of the bizarre tortures Daves mother inflicted on him, told from his point of view as a young boy. Among the cruel games Daves maniac, alcoholic mother played were smashing him face-first into mirrors, forcing him to eat the contents of his baby brothers diaper, drinking ammonia, and burning him over a gas stove. Daves story has two objectives: the first is to inform the reader how a loving, caring parent can change to a cold, abusive monster venting frustrations on a helpless child; the second is the eventual survival and triumph of the human spirit over seemingly insurmountable odds (164). Dave describes his earlier years as idyllic: In the years before I was abused, my family was the Brady Brunch of the 1960s. My two brothers and I were blessed with the perfect parents. Our every whim was fulfilled with love and care (17). His mothers behavior began to change drastically and Dave and his brothers had become afraid of her. Eventually, Dave was singled out for such vicious treatment. His mother made sure he knew that theres nothing he can do to impress her. She told him, you are a nobody! An It! You are nonexistent! You are a bastard child! I hate you and I wish you were dead! Dead! (140) School held no appeal to Dave either: At school I was a total outcast. I had no one to talk to or play with. I felt all alone (58). Since his mother rarely gave him the luxury of eating food, Dave resorted to stealing from his classmates lunch pails. The teachers and principal knew and carefully watched him. Oddly, his father never intervened. His attempts to talk to his wife about Dave failed, and only worsened the abuse. This caused Dave to hate his father: he was fully aware of the hell I lived in, but he lacked the courage to rescue me as he had promised so many times in the past (134). As the beatings and the torture continued, Dave began to give up: With no dreams, I found that words like hope and faith were only letters, randomly put together into something meaningless-words only for fairy tales (132). Inside, my soul became so cold I hated everything (133). Whats your single greatest accomplishment and why? Im so alive (155). My life as a child was extremely turbulent, being pushed and pulled in every direction. I tried as hard as I could to reach the light at the end of the dark tunnel, but it always seemed out of reach. Until suddenly, without warning, I broke free (156). What was your biggest obstacle? How did you overcome it? My mothers abusing me was no doubt my biggest obstacle. I hated Mother most and wished that she were dead. But before she died, I wanted her to feel the magnitude of my pain and my loneliness for all these years (134). As the years passed by and the beatings became more intense, I wished shed returned with a knife and ended it all.. My morale had become so low that in some self-destructive way I hoped she would kill me (141). But I made a promise to myself that kept me going. I wanted to show The Bitch that she could beat me only if I died, and I was determined not to give in, even to death (91). What one trait or characteristic would you most like to be remembered for? Why? I would definitely most like to be remembered for my resilience. Perhaps my faith and the security of my early years helped me develop enough resilience to survive the abuse and grow up to be an emotionally healthy adult with a child of my own. The challenges of my past have made me immensely strong inside. I adapted quickly, learning how to survive from a bad situation. I learned the secret of internal motivation. My experience gave me a different outlook on life, that others may never know. I have a vast appreciation for things that others may take for granted.. I hope that my story will help instill resilience in others. What was the single, most important thing youve learned? Why do you consider this so? The single, most important thing Ive learned from my past hardships was that even in its darkest passages, the heart is unconquerable. It is important that the body survives, but it is more meaningful that the human spirit prevails (165). I believe that no matter what happens in your past, you can overcome the dark side and press on to a brighter world. It is perhaps a paradox that without the abuse of my past, I might not be what I am today (166). My Reaction: I read A Child Called It in one day. Its one of those books you cant put down because you want to know whats going to happen next. I was always in constant suspense as to what Daves emotionally unstable mother was going to do to him and how he was going to survive the abuse. This book really sunk into my heart and the imagery used in the book helped put a clear picture of the dysfunctional household Dave lived in. The fact that this is a true story and millions of children suffer from the same ordeal saddens me. Also, the fact that he remembers all those horrible things that he went through in the past, in detail, is very sad. Im glad that Dave triumphed not only in finding a better, loving family, but also within himself. If I was in his shoes, I dont think Id be able to make it where he is today. His story truly changed my perspective on life. I realized how lucky I am to belong to a nice, tight-knit family and that I have it good compared to most people.

Monday, November 4, 2019

ROLE OF ABU DHABI POLICE IN REDUCING SERIOUS OF ROAD TRAFFIC ACCIDENTS Dissertation - 1

ROLE OF ABU DHABI POLICE IN REDUCING SERIOUS OF ROAD TRAFFIC ACCIDENTS TO IMPROVE THE TRAFFIC SAFETY IN EMIRATE OF ABU DHABI - Dissertation Example The study discussed that urban traffic calming schemes are often implemented in residential areas in town as a means of decreasing the environmental and safety issues prompted by road traffic. A hierarchical road system was created and through traffic was eliminated from residential streets via street closures or one-way road systems. Speed-slowing devices were often put up in residential areas. The main roads were managed in order to ensure larger traffic volume without necessarily causing delays or accidents. The meta-analysis indicates how traffic calming techniques generally decrease accidents by about 15%, with the most reduction in accidents observed in the residential areas. A similar decrease in accidents is also seen in main roads. Reductions are also observed in terms of property damage only incidents. General results in evaluation studies are rich in terms of study design and no evidence of publication issues in the evaluation studies was observed. The results also have a significant degree of external validity. In relation to road safety engineering, the management of horizontal curves was also considered in the New Zealand study by Charlton (2007). The study indicates how driver errors related to horizontal curves was caused by three-related issues – failure in driver attention, miscalculation on speed and curves, and improper lane positioning. The study indicated how advance warning signs on their own are not effective in decreasing speeds, as when they are used in combination with chevron sight boards and/or repeater arrows. Among the road marking treatments used, only the rumble strips indicated any major decrease in speed. Herringbones road marking was seen to create major improvements in driver’s lane positions, allowing the flattening of drivers’ pathways within the curves. The combined use of herringbones and chevron with the repeater arrow signs indicated a significant decrease in speed including improvements in lane po sitioning. These results indicate evidence that treatments which support perceptual signs are the most valuable remedies in managing the curve speeds for drivers. A similar study by Afukaar (2010) sought to assess road safety engineering measures, specifically for developing countries. This study indicated how vehicle speed was a factor in vehicle crashes, with Ghana used as an example. The study revealed how main driver errors mostly referred to vehicle speeds. Rumble strips and speed humps proved to be effective measures in Ghana’s roads. The rumble strips indicated on the primary Accra-Kumasi highway decreased the incidents of crashes to about 35% and deaths to 55%. Decreasing speeds may be an effective remedy in decreasing traffic crashes for low income states; however the decreased speed limits are not effective interventions without the traffic law enforcement tools needed to guarantee that limits are observed. Developing states must consider the lack of other speed con trol measures, including rumble strips and speed bumps, as well as lanes which separate slow and high-speed users, and other solutions like speed governors, and improved awareness of the issue Abu Dhabi road safety practices In general, there are few studies which have specifically covered the road safety practices in Abu Dhabi. Majority of the studies on road safety practice have covered the entire United Arab Emirates. Some of these studies shall be included in this review. Bener and Alwash (2002) discussed how

Saturday, November 2, 2019

Personal Statement Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 2

Personal Statement Example Until now, I can still recall the exact time I fell in love with numbers and its analysis. I was in middle school, and an excellent teacher had been showing us how to tackle numerical problems. Imagine my delight with the adeptness I possess in following problem-solving techniques; after that memorable moment, I am hooked for life. The obsession I had helped me go through high school and college experience. As I passed entrance exam in secondary level with flying colors, I had been bombarded with different mathematical concepts, from geometry, trigonometry, algebra and calculus. Yet, another event marked my interest towards a specific course. When I took the class in Computer Science, we were introduced to C++ and FoxPro, deviating my interest towards analytical systems involved in computer processes. At 12th grade level, I had the honor of passing the course, with a Certificate to prove it. My interest in analytical mathematics led me to computer science programming, and the fascina tion had come to stay. In pursuance with numerical passion, it became the basis for my course selection Babes-Bolyai University, an excellent university in Cluj-Napoca. I took a program involving the combination of mathematics analysis and computer programming, Mathematics and Computer Science course, where I pored over a variety of concepts: Numerical analysis, Differential equations and Dynamic systems, Affine geometry, and Numerical solving of equations, Object oriented programming, Applications for mobile, Analysis and administration of complex computers systems, and Evolved programming methods. It may sound intimidating for others, but in my case, it had been like enjoying a favorite pastime. To top it all, I could get to share my enthusiasm with younger minds; I volunteered as tutor to students from grade 5-12. Giving my students a part of my analytical fixations with numbers is indeed a pleasurable episode for all of us. As much as I love my country, it seems that I am destin ed to go on a global scale. As I approached my fourth year in university, I was able to visit my relatives in Portland, Oregon for the summer. Unbeknown to me, I would meet the guy for me, Dan, who had been based in Seattle, Washington. We got on well together, as we both share an abundant love for life and adventure. Even though I went back to finish my course, we maintained constant contact. However, our love for each other had been adamant, and Dan proposed when he came to see me during my winter break--we got hitched summer that year. Forced to halt my studies in Romania, I relocated to follow my husband in Seattle, Washington. My need for mathematical challenges hunted me, and after thorough search for an outstanding university, I know what I am meant to do. I have to apply for degree on Applied Computational Mathematical Sciences in your top-rate institution, University of Washington. Only you have the competency to nurture my creative talent with numbers. Career Goals A few m onths after my marriage, I got pregnant, delaying my academic aspirations for a while, but was able to proceed years after. Unfortunately, my first attempt in the University of Washington had been denied. Thus, I channeled my energy towards another course in Bellevue College on Relational Database Developer, and this summer, I will have my certificate for the 45 units that I might accomplish. I am optimistic that this time, I will be given the chance

Thursday, October 31, 2019

Science Meets Real Life Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Science Meets Real Life - Essay Example This essay stresses that people can become sick when they are exposed to virus and also by consuming contaminated food. An inspection of the restaurant has brought to fore the fact that it is not only unhygienic, but also lacks in the basic facilities. The kitchens of most of the restaurants do not have any ceilings and the shelves of the freezers are dirty. Besides, the cloths that the cooks use for wiping food contact surfaces are not cleaned in sanitizing solutions. Another major aspect that has come to notice is the fact that â€Å"Food thermometers were not being used by employees†. A comparison of the school calendars of the institutions indicates that the students from both schools have met and interacted on the occasion of the May Day Parade. They have also met on 15th May for planning meeting for the battle of the bands, which has been scheduled for 19th May. This paper makes a conclusion that more students may have become exposed to virus due to their interaction on the occasion of the functions related to band parade. The following testable questions can be offered for further investigation: what specific reasons can be attributed to the absence of students in both schools? what may be the causes for the common disease among the students? how are the students from both the schools affected at the same time? if the students from both the schools are suffering from the same problem when have they been exposed to the virus? how are they exposed to the same disease causing agents? what measures can be taken to prevent food contamination in restaurants?

Tuesday, October 29, 2019

Leadership Development Report Essay Example for Free

Leadership Development Report Essay Leadership has a paramount importance in the business world. It is not about a position, but how a person can influence others in creating and working towards that common organisation’s goal, and to create meaning in the works that we do. This report begins with the servant leadership framework that covers what I value in leadership. Also included in this report are the self-assessments that measure my leadership potential and competencies. This report also covers the issues associated to the industry I have chosen to work in and address my person-specific issues. II. LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT MODEL (175) Definition servant leadership Servant leadership is a type of leadership where the leader does order to be served; but focus on serving their followers in order to assist and guide them into more useful and satisfied people. This theory emphasize on the creation of moral purpose for leaders. It focuses on the impact that they leave on other people’s life to measure their greatness. Characteristics of servant leadership The servant leadership theory consists of ten key characteristics. These characteristics are; listening intently, empathy, healing, awareness, persuasion, conceptualization, foresight, stewardship, commitment to the growth of people, and building community. (Miller, Skringar, Dalglish Stevens, 2012) Why servant leadership? My concept of leadership is someone who is able to influence their followers through inspiration, empower them to realize their undiscovered true potential, and bring meaning to their life. In addition, I believe that a leader needs to be able to listen to their follower’s need in order to put the will of the group above their own will on the group. I strongly uphold the need for empathy in my leadership concept, because I believe that a leader must be able to put themselves in their follower’s shoes and perceive things through the eyes of their followers in order to gain understanding from different perspectives and to empower the followers to bring out their passion and thus bring forward their fullest potential in making a meaningful work. As mentioned by a successful leader – Fred A. Mansk Jr, â€Å" The ultimate leader is one who is willing to develop people to the point that they eventually surpass him or her in knowledge and ability.† Therefore, I find Servant Leadership as the most suitable framework for my leadership plan. III. Diagnosis of Strength and Weaknesses To support the diagnostic process and to provide the information on my leadership strengths and weaknesses I am using the information from two personality tests; Carl Jung’s and Issabel Briggs Myer’s Typology Test and a standardized emotional intelligent (EI) test. Self Assessments Carl Jung’s and Issabel Briggs Myer’s Typology Test Carl Jung’s and Issabel Briggs Myer’s Typology Test is a psychometric assessment designed to measure the preferences in how people perceive the world and make decisions based on their psychological preference. The aim of this test is to help people to have a better understanding of themselves, by understanding their strengths, weaknesses, possible career preferences and their preferred approach when interacting with others. This test puts one into four letter categories, where each letter stands for a specific personality type. (Briggs, Myers, 1998) After undertaking this typology test, I was classified under INFJ (Introvert, iNtuitive, Feeling, Judging) typology. Firstly, introversion displays a characteristic that is reserved and highly private. This goes in line with my personal characteristic as I look within for meaning and understanding. Secondly, intuition indicates an emphasis on abstract ideas and focusing on the meaning of the bigger picture rather than solid details. Feeling focuses mainly on personal concerns and emotional perception rather than the logical and objective facts. Judging describes about the need to have control by planning, organizing and making decisions as soon as possible because of INFJs’ deep attention on the future. INFJ type is described as having the strengths of being determined and passionate, altruistic, decisive, insightful, creative, inspiring and convincing. Dr. Dranitsaris stated that INFJ leadership style is quiet and influencing. INFJ leaders often lead by inspiring and motivating people with their ideals, working hard to gain the cooperation of others rather than demanding it. In a business context, INFJ leaders also tend to genuinely care about the people and how happy they are with their job. (Dranitsaris, 2009). This describes the traits considered as strengths of the INFJ type: that of being warm, altruistic and passionate. The main motive for every work done is not focused centrally on gaining personal benefit but for the greater good of the broader society; to find value and purpose for every tasks. Also, INFJs are described to be deeply concerned about their relations with people and how it links to humanity. (Heiss, Butt, 1996) These are the strengths I believe I possess in myself and these characteristics go in line with the framework of servant leadership as explained previously. However, the very strong need to have a cause for every work done can serve as a weakness for INFJ. This is because it can become difficult to maintain the drive and energy to complete works when I am not able to derive any deeper purpose or relate the objective of the work to a worthy goal. The complexity INFJ is further seen with the tendency to be idealistic. When objectives are not in line with a meaningful goal, INFJ will incline to grow restless and demotivated overtime. This will affect the effort and end result. The result may deviate from the targeted aim which becomes a conflict with the need for perfection. These weaknesses are worsen with the reserved nature of INFJ which may trigger unexpressed internal conflicts. Emotional Intelligent Test (EI) Emotional Intelligent test, on the other hand is a psychological test which allow an individual to identify their social skills that facilitate their interpersonal behavior. It identifies one’s capacity for goal-oriented adaptive behavior. It focuses on the aspects of intelligence that govern self-knowledge and social adaptation. Below are the results that I have attained from this self-assessment: Strengths Potential Strength Weaknesses doing well in the area of emotional understanding chose good forms of resolution for others conflict situations on the test empathetic socially insightful driven towards self-development healthy approach in resolving conflict situations doing reasonably well in the area of emotional identification, perception, and expression act in accordance with your values lacking in self-motivation not very assertive need to strengthen self-esteem further development needed in personal resilience/hardiness. These strengths indicate that I possess some of the traits that are needed to display the characteristics of a good servant-leader. IV. Industry-Specific Issues Looking into the Hospitality industry, specifically Airlines, I will use Singapore Airlines as a basis of my evaluation. The extent of superior service is paramount for it to establish itself. In order to deliver the standard of service the company has set for itself, it requires highly passionate and motivated employees. One of the elements that contribute to the success of Singapore Airlines is its human resource that highly regards contribution of creative ideas in which rewards are later given. (Singh, 1984) To be passionate, to inspire and to encourage innovation are strengths found in INFJs that match with the traits of Servant Leaders who encourages and motivates the followers to making a meaningful and effective work efforts. V. Person-Specific Issues Gender, age and culture are important aspects to be considered in shaping one’s leadership development. Being someone coming from Asia, the idea of women becoming a leader will face cultural constraints. In the context of organization, becoming a female leader will be more challenging than the male counterpart because there is a strong notion whereby men are born to lead and women to follow or serve and men hold the leadership positions. (Carly, Eagly, 1999). This is still present in the traditional Asian culture. Even to the eyes of the followers, the figure that is seen to be capable of leading goes to male gender. The masculinity possessed becomes a symbol of strength and competency. (Schein, 2001) Instructions led by female leaders are more likely to be followed because of the idea of obedience to authority rather than being influenced through inspiration. The gender-bias corporate culture becomes a huge obstacle in making use of servant-leadership framework as a female. This gender bias is still evident in many office settings of Japanese corporations whereby higher ranking positions are given mostly to male; and in fact Japan seeing a near zero resemblance between women and managers. (Schein, Mueller, 1992) Besides that, age also becomes an issue in determining the level of experience of a professional. Younger age typically indicates limited exposure to the various real-life experiences and this may affect the extent of wisdom in making judgments. VI. Timeframe and Evaluation Plan The weaknesses based on the self-assessments are used to develop my leadership goals and the Michigan Leadership Competency Model serves as a tool to categorize the goals set and the timeframe for the plan. Time Frame Self-Developmental Goals Self-Management Conceptualization Servant leaders seek to nurture their abilities to dream great dreams; not just consumed by achieving operational goals. To develop characteristic and thinking process encompass broader-based conceptual thinking require discipline and practice. Leading Others Influencing/Persuasion Servant leaders seek to persuade and convince others through inspiration rather than coerce compliance. This requires a level of confidence, personal drive and energy to be emulated to the followers. As represented in one of my weaknesses from the self-assessment, I lack in self-motivation, self-esteem and assertiveness. These characteristics need to be developed in order to gain enough personal power to lead and guide others. Innovation Creativity Creativity is one of the key characteristics of servant leaders. Also, the hospitality industry takes great importance in areas of innovation to stay competitive and relevant. This is a characteristic that continually needs to be fostered and developed. Social Responsibility Ethically Social Servant Leadership highlights the importance of leading for the greater good for a deeper moral purpose. This emphasizes the need for moral awareness and ethical conducts when leading. This can be done by participating more in charitable or environmental causes which aim in improving social welfare of the broader society. Such participation allow exposure and knowledge-gaining. Evaluation by Multi-Step Action Plan 1 year Completing Bachelor of Business Degree 3 years Employment in Airline as Flight Attendant to gain exposure to new experiences, ethical conducts and ideas and insight knowledge on providing service in hospitality industry (Innovation Social Responsibility) 2 years Further study on Master of Hospitality Management to broaden conceptual thinking process. This also help to gain self-esteem and improve on the ability to influence (Conceptualization Influencing) Working in Management VII. Industry Leader Input Previously I focused my goals only on the trait developments. This was difficult measure because characteristics can only be proven once I’ve been put on the position to be a leader in a group. There was no tangible achievement to evaluate the success of my goal planning. Therefore, through his suggestion, I modified my goal timeframe by adding a multi-step action plan that cover the length of time to achieve each target. For example, the employment in an Airline industry will help me garner new experiences, perspective and practice discipline in work ethics. Feedback on my work performance from supervisors can serve as a form of evaluation. Also, the attainment of higher qualification will allow me to gain broader and deeper knowledge on the industry through research. The exposure and experience may help me to develop a stronger leadership characteristic and further evaluation can be done through taking re-test for EI. Wordcount: 1,509 words (Excluding References, Appedices, Headings Tables) VIII. Appendices 1. Michigan Leadership Competency Model Leadership Assessment Report Scores range from 1 to 6, with 1 indicating that you rated yourself low on that competency and 6 indicating that you rated yourself high. Introverted iNtuition Introverted intuitives, INFJs enjoy a greater clarity of perception of inner, unconscious processes than all but their INTJ cousins. Just as SP types commune with the object and live in the here and now of the physical world, INFJs readily grasp the hidden psychological stimuli behind the more observable dynamics of behavior and affect. Their amazing ability to deduce the inner workings of the mind, will and emotions of others gives INFJs their reputation as prophets and seers. Unlike the confining, routinizing nature of introverted sensing, introverted intuition frees this type to act insightfully and spontaneously as unique solutions arise on an event by event basis. Extraverted Feeling Extraverted feeling, the auxiliary deciding function, expresses a range of emotion and opinions of, for and about people. INFJs, like many other FJ types, find themselves caught between the desire to express their wealth of feelings and moral conclusions about the actions and attitudes of others, and the awareness of the consequences of unbridled candor. Some vent the attending emotions in private, to trusted allies. Such confidants are chosen with care, for INFJs are well aware of the treachery that can reside in the hearts of mortals. This particular combination of introverted intuition and extraverted feeling provides INFJs with the raw material from which perceptive counselors are shaped. Introverted Thinking The INFJs thinking is introverted, turned toward the subject. Perhaps it is when the INFJs thinking function is operative that he is most aloof. A comrade might surmise that such detachment signals a disillusionment, that she has also been found lacking by the sardonic eye of this one who plumbs the depths of the human spirit. Experience suggests that such distancing is merely an indication that the seer is hard at work and focusing energy into this less efficient tertiary function. Extraverted Sensing INFJs are twice blessed with clarity of vision, both internal and external. Just as they possess inner vision which is drawn to the forms of the unconscious, they also have external sensing perception which readily takes hold of worldly objects. Sensing, however, is the weakest of the INFJs arsenal and the most vulnerable. INFJs, like their fellow intuitives, may be so absorbed in intuitive perceiving that they become oblivious to physical reality. The INFJ under stress may fall prey to various forms of immediate gratification. Awareness of extraverted sensing is probably the source of the SP wannabe side of INFJs. Many yearn to live spontaneously; its not uncommon for INFJ actors to take on an SP (often ESTP) role. References Briggs, K. C., Myers, I. B. (1998). Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. Palo Alto, CA. Greenleaf, R. K. (1977). The Servant as Leader. Business Leadership: A Jossey-Bass Reader. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Miller, Skringar, Dalglish Stevens, (2012) Leadership and Change Management. 1st ed. Prahran VIC Australia: Tilde University Press. Maxwell, J. C., Dorvan, J. (1997). Becoming a Person of Influence: How to Positively Impact the Lives of Others. Nashville: Thomas Nelson Schein, V.E. (2001) A global look at psychological barriers to women’s progress in management. Journal of Social Issues. 57, pp. 675-688. Schein, V.E., Mueller, R. (1992). Sex role stereotyping and requisite management characteristics: A cross cultural look. Journal of Organizational Behavior. 13, pp. 439-447. Carli L.L., Eagly A.H. (1999). Gender effects on influence and emergent leadership Powell G.N. (Ed.), Handbook of gender and work, Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA, pp. 203–222 Soo Min Toh, Geoffrey J. Leonardelli (2012) Cultural constraints on the emergence of women as leaders. Journal of World Business, Vol. 47, Issue 4, pp. 604-611 Karmjit Singh (1984). Successful strategies—The story of Singapore Airlines (SIA) Long Range Planning, Vol.17, Issue 5, pp. 17-22 Dranitsaris, A., (ed.) 2009, Personality Type and Leadership Behaviour: Jung’s Typology for the Workplace, e-book, accessed 25 April 2013, Central Michigan University, 2004, Leadership Competency Model, accessed 20 April 2013, http://www.chsbs.cmich.edu/leader_model/CompModel/EDUMAIN.htm Heiss, M.M, Butt, J.,1999, INFJ, Typelogic, accessed 25 April 2013, HumanMetrics Jung’s Typology Test INFJ, 2012, accessed 25 April 2013,

Sunday, October 27, 2019

Soil Analysis of the Himalayan Mountain System

Soil Analysis of the Himalayan Mountain System Chapter- 4 ABIOTIC ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES OF MORAINIC AND ALPINE ECOSYSTEMS Global warming/ enhanced greenhouse effect and the loss of biodiversity are the major environmental issues around the world. The greatest part of the worlds population lives in the tropical regions. Mountainous regions in many cases provide favourable conditions for water supply due to orographically enhanced convective precipitation. Earth scientists are examining ancient periods of extreme warmth, such as the Miocene climatic optimum of about 14.5-17 million years ago. Fossil floral and faunal evidences indicate that this was the warmest time of the past 35 million years; a mid-latitude temperature was as much as 60C higher than the present one. Many workers believe that high carbon dioxide levels, in combination with oceanographic changes, caused Miocene global warming by the green house effect. Pagani et al. (1999) present evidence for surprisingly low carbon dioxide levels of about 180-290ppm by volume throughout the early to late Miocene (9-25 million years). They concluded tha t green house warming by carbon dioxide couldnt explain Miocene warmth and other mechanism must have had a greater influence. Carbon dioxide is a trace gas in the Earths atmosphere, which exchanges between carbon reservoirs in particularly the oceans and the biosphere. Consequently atmospheric concentration shows temporal, local and regional fluctuations. Since the beginning of industrialization, its atmospheric concentration has increased. The 1974 mean concentration of atmospheric CO2 was about 330 ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1 (Baes et. al., 1976), which is equivalent to 2574 x 1015 g CO2 702.4 x 1015 C assuming 5.14 x 1021 g as the mass of the atmosphere. This value is significantly higher than the amount of atmospheric CO2 in 1860 that was about 290 ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1 (617.2 x 1015 g). Precise measurements of the atmospheric CO2 concentration started in 1957 at the South Pole, Antarctica (Brown and Keeling, 1965) and in 1958 at Mauna Loa, Hawaii (Pales and Keeling, 1965). Records from Mauna Loa show that the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere has risen since 1958, from 315 mmol mol-1 to approximately 360 315 mmol mol-1 in 1963 (Boden et al., 1994). From these records and other measurements that began more recently, it is clear that the present rate of CO2 increase ranges between 1.5 and 2.5 mmol mol-1 per annum. In the context of the Indian Himalayan region, the effect of warming is apparent on the recession of glaciers (Valdiya, 1988), which is one of the climatic sensitive environmental indicators, and serves as a measure of the natural variability of climate of mountains over long time scales (Beniston et al., 1997). However no comprehensive long-term data on CO2 levels are available. The consumption of CO2 by photosynthesis on land is about 120 x 1015 g dry organic matter/year, which is equivalent to about 54 x 1015gC/yr (Leith and Whittaker, 1975). Variations in the atmospheric CO2 content on land are mainly due to the exchange of CO2 between vegetation and the atmosphere (Leith, 1963; Baumgartner, 1969). The process in this exchange is photosynthesis and respiration. The consumption of CO2 by the living plant material is balanced by a corresponding production of CO2 during respiration of the plants themselves and from decay of organic material, which occurs mainly in the soil through the activity of bacteria (soil respiration). The release of CO2 from the soil depends on the type, structure, moisture and temperature of the soil. The CO2 concentration in soil can be 1000 times higher than in air (Enoch and Dasberg, 1971). Due to these processes, diurnal variations in the atmospheric CO2 contents on ground level are resulted. High mountain ecosystems are considered vulnerable to climate change (Beniston, 1994; Grabherr et al., 1995; Theurillat and Guisan, 2001). The European Alps experienced a 20 C increase in annual minimum temperatures during the twentieth century, with a marked rise since the early 1980s (Beniston et al., 1997). Upward moving of alpine plants has been noticed (Grabherr et al., 1994; Pauli et al., 2001), community composition has changed at high alpine sites (Keller et al., 2000), and treeline species have responded to climate warming by invasion of the alpine zone or increased growth rates during the last decades (Paulsen et al., 2000). Vegetation at glaciers fronts is commonly affected by glacial fluctuations (Coe, 1967; Spence, 1989; Mizumo, 1998). Coe (1967) described vegetation zonation, plant colonization and the distribution of individual plant species on the slopes below the Tyndall and Lewis glaciers. Spence (1989) analyzed the advance of plant communities in response to the re treat of the Tyndall and Lewis glaciers for the period 1958- 1984. Mizumo (1998) addressed plant communities in response to more recent glacial retreat by conducting field research in 1992, 1994, 1996 and 1997. The studies illustrated the link between ice retreat and colonization near the Tyndall and Lewis glaciers. The concern about the future global climate warming and its geoecological consequences strongly urges development and analysis of climate sensitive biomonitoring systems. The natural elevational tree limit is often assumed to represent an ideal early warming line predicted to respond positionally, structurally and compositionally even to quite modest climate fluctuations. Several field studies in different parts of the world present that climate warming earlier in the 20th century (up to the 1950s 1960s) has caused tree limit advances (Kullman, 1998). Purohit (1991) also reported upward shifting of species in Garhwal Himalaya. The Himalayan mountain system is a conspicuous landmass characterised by its unique crescent shape, high orography, varied lithology and complex structure. The mountain system is rather of young geological age through the rock material it contains has a long history of sedimentation, metamorphism and magmatism from Proterozoic to Quaternary in age. Geologically, it occupies a vast terrain covering the northern boundary of India, entire Nepal, Bhutan and parts of China and Pakistan stretching from almost 720 E to 960 E meridians for about 2500 km in length. In terms of orography, the geographers have conceived four zones in the Himalaya across its long axis. From south to north, these are (i) the sub-Himalaya, comprising low hill ranges of Siwalik, not rising above 1,000 m in altitude; (ii) the Lesser Himalaya, comprising a series of mountain ranges not rising above 4000 m in altitude; (iii) the Great Himalaya, comprising very high mountain ranges with glaciers, rising above 6,000 m i n altitude and (iv) the Trans-Himalaya, Comprising very high mountain ranges with glaciers. The four orographic zones of the Himalaya are not strictly broad morpho-tectonic units though tectonism must have played a key role in varied orographic attainments of different zones. Their conceived boundaries do not also coincide with those of litho-stratigraphic or tectono-stratigraphic units. Because of the involvement of a large number of parameters of variable nature, the geomorphic units are expected to be diverse but cause specific, having close links with mechanism and crustal movements (Ghosh, et al., 1989). Soil is essential for the continued existence of life on the planet. Soil takes thousands of years to form and only few years to destroy their productivity as a result of erosion and other types of improper management. It is a three dimensional body consisting of solid, liquid and gaseous phase. It includes any part of earths crust, which through the process of weathering and incorporation of organic matter has become capable in securing and supporting plants. Living organisms and the transformation they perform have a profound effect on the ability of soils to provide food and fiber for expanding world population. Soils are used to produce crops, range and timber. Soil is basic to our survival and it is natures waste disposal medium and it serves as habitats for varied kinds of plants, birds, animals, and microorganisms. As a source of stores and transformers of plant nutrients, soil has a major influence on terrestrial ecosystems. Soil continuously recycles plant and animal remains , and they are major support systems for human life, determining the agricultural production capacity of the land (Anthwal, 2004). Soil is a natural product of the environment. Native soil forms from the parent material by action of climate (temperature, wind, and water), native vegetation and microbes. The shape of the land surface affects soil formation. It is also affected by the time it took for climate, vegetation, and microbes to create the soil. Soil varies greatly in time and space. Over time-scales relevant to geo-indicators, they have both stable characteristics (e.g. mineralogical composition and relative proportions of sand, silt and clay) and those that respond rapidly to changing environmental conditions (e.g. ground freezing). The latter characteristics include soil moisture and soil microbiota (e.g. nematodes, microbes), which are essential to fluxes of plant nutrients and greenhouse gases (Peirce, and Larson, 1996.). Most soils resist short-term climate change, but some may undergo irreversible change such as lateritic hardening and densification, podsolization, or large-scale erosion. Chemical degradation takes place because of depletion of soluble elements through rainwater leaching, over cropping and over grazing, or because of the accumulation of salts precipitated from rising ground water or irrigation schemes. It may also be caused by sewage containing toxic metals, precipitation of acidic and other airborne contaminants, as well as by persistent use of fertilizers and pesticides (Page et al., 1986). Physical degradation results from land clearing, erosion and compaction by machinery (Klute, 1986). The key soil indicators are texture (especially clay content), bulk density, aggregate stability and size distribution, and water-holding capacity (Anthwal, 2004). Soil consists of 45% mineral, 25% water, 25% air and 5% organic matter (both living and dead organisms). There are thousands of different soils throughout the world. Soil are classified on the basis of their parent material, texture, structure, and profile There are five key factors in soil formation: i) type of parent material; ii) climate; iii) overlying vegetation; iv) topography or slope; and v) time. Climate controls the distribution of vegetation or soil organisms. Together climate and vegetation/soil organisms often are called the active factors of soil formation (genesis). This is because, on gently undulating topography within a certain climatic and vegetative zone a characteristic or typical soil will develop unless parent material differences are very great (Anthwal, 2004). Thus, the tall and mid-grass prairie soils have developed across a variety of parent materials. Soil structure comprises the physical constitution of soil material as expressed by size, shape, and arrangement of solid particles and voids (Jongmans et al., 2001). Soil structure is an important soil property in many clayey, agricultural soils. Physical and chemical properties and also the nutrient status of the soil vary spatially due to the changing nature of the climate, parent material, physiographic position and vegetation (Behari et al., 2004). Soil brings together many ecosystem processes, integrating mineral and organic processes; and biological, physical and chemical processes (Arnold et al., 1990, Yaalon 1990). Soil may respond slowly to environmental changes than other elements of the ecosystem such as, the plants and animal do. Changes in soil organic matter can also indicate vegetation change, which can occur quickly because of climatic change (Almendinger, 1990). In high altitudes, soils are formed by the process of solifluction. Soils on the slopes above 300 are generally shallow due to erosion and mass wasting processes and usually have very thin surface horizons. Such skeletal soils have median to coarse texture depending on the type of material from which they have been derived. Glacial plants require water, mineral resources and support from substrate, which differ from alpine and lower altitude in many aspects. The plant life gets support by deeply weathered profile in moraine soils, which develops thin and mosaic type of vegetation. Most of the parent material is derived by mechanical weathering and the soils are rather coarse textured and stony. Permafrost occurs in many of the high mountains and the soils are typically cold and wet. The soils of the moraine region remain moist during the summer because drainage is impeded by permafrost (Gaur, 2002). In general, the north facing slopes support deep, moist and fertile soils. The south facing slopes, on the other hand, are precipitous and well exposed to denudation. These soils are shallow, dry and poor and are often devoid of any kind of regolith (Pandey, 1997). Based on various samples, Nand et al., (1989) finds negative correlation between soil pH and altitude and argues that decrease in pH with the increase in elevation is possibly accounted by high rainfall which facilitated leaching out of Calcium and Magnesium from surface soils. The soils are invariably rich in Potash, medium in Phosphorus and poor in Nitrogen contents. However, information on geo-morphological aspects, soil composition and mineral contents of alpine and moraine in Garhwal Himalaya are still lacking. Present investigation was aimed to carry out detail observations on soil composition of the alpine and moraine region of Garhwal Himalaya. 4.1. OBSERVATIONS As far as the recordings of abiotic environmental variables of morainic and alpine ecosystems of Dokriani Bamak are concerned, the atmospheric carbon dioxide and the physical and chemical characteristics of the soil were recorded under the present study. As these are important for the present study. 4.1.1. Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide Diurnal variations in the atmospheric CO2 were recorded at Dokriani Bamak from May 2005- October 2005. Generally the concentration of CO2 was higher during night and early morning hours (0600-0800) and lower during daytime. However, there were fluctuations in the patterns of diurnal changes in CO2 concentration on daily basis. In the month of May 2005, carbon dioxide concentration ranged from a minimum of 375Â µmol mol-1 to a maximum of 395Â µmol mol-1. When the values were averaged for the measurement days the maximum and minimum values ranged from 378Â µmol mol-1 to 388Â µmol mol-1. A difference of 20Â µmol mol-1 was found between the maximum and minimum values recorded for the measurement days. When the values were averaged, a difference of 10Â µmol mol-1 was observed between maximum and minimum values. During the measurement period, CO2 concentrations varied from a minimum of 377ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1 at 12 noon to a maximum of 400ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1 at 0800 hrs in the month of June, 2005. When the CO2 values were averaged for 6 days, the difference between the minimum and maximum values was about 23ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1. In the month of July, levels of carbon dioxide concentrations ranged from a minimum of 369ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1 to a maximum of 390ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1. When the values of the carbon dioxide concentrations for the measuring period were averaged, the difference between the minimum and maximum values was about 21ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1. Carbon dioxide concentration ranged from a minimum of 367ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1 to a maximum of 409ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1 during the month of August. When the values of carbon dioxide were averaged for the measurement days, the difference in the minimum and maximum values was about 42ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1. During the measurement period (September), CO2 concentrations varied from a minimum of 371ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1 at 12 noon to a maximum of 389ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1 at 0600 hrs indicating a difference of 18ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1 between the maximum and minimum values. When the values of the measurement days were averaged the minimum and maximum values ranged from 375ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1 to 387ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1 and a difference of 12ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1 was recorded. During the month of October, carbon dioxide levels ranged from a minimum of 372ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1 at 1400 hrs to a maximum of 403ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1 at 2000 hrs indicating a difference of 31ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1. When the values were averaged, the carbon dioxide levels ranged from a minimum of 376ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1 to a maximum of 415ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1.A difference in the minimum and maximum values was found to be 39Â µmol mol-1 when the values were averaged for the measurements days. In the growing season (May-October) overall carbon dioxide concentration was recorded to be highest in the month of June and seasonally it was recorded highest during the month of October 4.1.2. A. Soil Physical Characteristics of Soil Soil Colour and Texture Soils of the study area tend to have distinct variations in colour both horizontally and vertically (Table 4.1). The colour of the soil varied with soil depth. It was dark yellowish brown at the depth of 10-20cm, 30-40cm of AS1 and AS2, brown at the depth of 0-10cm of AS1 and AS2 and yellowish brown at the depths of 20-30cm, 40-50cm, 50-60cm of AS1 and AS2). Whereas the soil colour was grayish brown at the depths of 0-10cm, 30-40cm, 50-60cm of MS1 and MS2, dark grayish brown at the depths of 10-20cm, 20-30cm of MS1 and MS2 and brown at the depth of 40-50cm of both the moraine sites (MS1 and MS2). Soil texture is the relative volume of sand, silt and clay particles in a soil. Soils of the study area had high proportion of silt followed by sand and clay (Table 4.2). Soil of the alpine sites was identified as silty loam category, whereas, the soil of the moraine was of silty clayey loam category. Soil Temperature The soil temperature depends on the amount of heat reaching the soil surface and dissipation of heat in soil. Figure 4.2 depicts soil temperature at all the sites in the active growth period. A maximum (13.440C) soil temperature was recorded during the month of July and minimum (4.770C) during the month of October at AS1. The soil temperature varied between 5.10C being the lowest during the month of October to 12.710C as maximum during the month of August at AS2. Soil temperature ranged from 3.240C (October) to 11.210C (July) at MS1. However, the soil temperature ranged from 3.40C (October) to 12.330C (July) at MS2. Soil Moisture (%) Moisture has a big influence on soils ability to compact. Some soils wont compact well until moisture is 7-8%. Â  Likewise, wet soil also doesnt compact well. The mean soil water percentage (Fig. 4.3) in study area fluctuated between a maximum of 83% (AS1) to a minimum of 15% (AS2). The values of soil water percentage ranged from a minimum of 8% (MS2) to a maximum of 80% (MS1). Soil water percentage was higher in the month of July at AS1 and during August at MS1 (. During the month of June, soil water percentage was recorded minimum in the lower depth (50-60cm) at both the sites. Water Holding Capacity (WHC) The mean water holding capacity of the soil varied from alpine sites to moraine sites (Table 4.4). It ranged from a maximum of 89.66% (August) to a minimum of 79.15% (May) at AS1. The minimum and maximum values at AS2 were 78.88% (May) to 89.66% (August), respectively. The maximum WHC was recorded to be 84.61 % during the month of September on upper layer (0-10 cm) at MS1 and minimum 60.36% during the month of May in the lower layer (50-60cm) at MS1. At MS2, WHC ranged from 60.66% (May) to 84.61% (September). However, maximum WHC was recorded in upper layers at both the sites of alpine and moraine. Soil pH The soil pH varied from site to site during the course of the present study (Table 4.5). Mean pH values of all the sites are presented in Figure 4.4 The soil of the study area was acidic. Soil of the moraine sites was more acidic than that of the alpine sites. Soil pH ranged from 4.4 to 5.3 (AS1), 4.5 to 5.2 (AS2), 4.9 to 6.1 (MS1) and 4.8 to 5.7 (MS2). 4.1.2 B. Chemical Characteristics of Soil Organic Carbon (%): Soil organic carbon (SOC) varied with depths and months at both the alpine and moraine sites (Table 4.6). High percentage of organic carbon was observed in the upper layer of all sites during the entire period of study. Soil organic C decreased with depth and it was lowest in lower layers at all the sites. Soil organic carbon was maximum (5.1%) during July at AS1 because of high decomposition of litter, while it was minimum (4.2%) during October due to high uptake by plants in the uppermost layer (0-10 cm). A maximum (5.0%) SOC was found during the month of July and minimum (4.1%) during October at AS2. At the moraine sites, maximum (3.58%, 3.73%) SOC was found during June and minimum (1.5% and 1.9%) during August at MS1 and MS2 respectively. Phosphorus (%): A low amount of phosphorus was observed from May to August which increased during September and October. The mean phosphorus percentage ranged from 0.02 Â ± 0.01 to 0.07 Â ± 0.03 at AS1 and AS2. It was 0.03Â ±0.01 to 0.03Â ±0.02 at MS1 and MS2. Maximum percentage of phosphorus was estimated to be 0.09 in the uppermost layer (0-10 cm) during October at AS1. The lower layer (40-50 cm) of soil horizon contained a minimum of 0.01% phosphorus during September at AS1 and AS2. In the moraine sites (MS1 and MS2), maximum phosphorus percentage of 0.03 Â ±0.01 was estimated in the upper layers (0-10, 10-20, 20-30 cm) while it was found to be minimum (0.02Â ±0.01) in the lower layers (30-40 cm). Overall, a decreasing trend in amount of phosphorus was found with depth in alpine as well as moraine sites Potassium (%): A decline in potassium contents was also observed with declining depth during the active growing season. Maximum value of potassium was found in the uppermost layer (0-10 cm) at all the sites. The mean values ranged from 0.71Â ±0.02 to 46Â ±0.06 at AS1 while it was 0.71Â ±0.02 to 0.47Â ±0.05 at AS2. In the moraine sites the values ranged from a minimum of 0.33 Â ±0.06 to a maximum of 0.59Â ±0.05 in the MS1 and from 0.59Â ±0.05 to 0.32Â ±0.06 at MS2. In the upper layer of soil horizon (0-10 cm), maximum value of 0.74 %, 0.75% of potassium was observed during the month of July at AS1 and AS2. While the values were maximum in the month of October at moraine sites MS1 and MS2 having 0.66% and 0.65% respectively Nitrogen (%): Highest percentage of nitrogen was found in the upper layers at all the sites. Maximum percentage of nitrogen were found during the month of July-August (0.25%, 0.25 and 0.26%, 0.25%) at AS1 and AS2, respectively. Maximum values of 0.18% and 0.15% respectively were found during the month of June at the moraine sites MS1 and MS2. The nitrogen percentage ranged from 0.23Â ±0.02 to 0.04Â ±0.01% at AS1. However, it ranged from a minimum of 0.05Â ±0.01 to 0.24Â ±0.02% at AS2. The nitrogen percentage ranged from a minimum of 0.03Â ±0.01, 0.02Â ±0.04% to a maximum of 12Â ±0.03, 13Â ±0.01%, respectively at MS1 and MS2 Overall, a decreasing trend was noticed in the nitrogen percentage with depth at both the alpine and moraine sites. 4.2. DISCUSSION Soil has a close relationship with geomorphology and vegetation type of the area (Gaur, 2002). Any change in the geomorphological process and vegetational pattern influences the pedogenic processes. However, variability in soil is a characteristic even within same geomorphic position (Gaur, 2002). Jenney (1941) in his discussion on organisms as a soil forming factors treated vegetation both as an independent and as dependent variable. In order to examine the role of vegetation as an independent variable, it would be possible to study the properties of soil as influenced by vegetation while all other soil forming factors such as climate, parent material, topography and time are maintaining at a particular constellation. Many soil properties may be related to a climatic situation revealing thousand years ago (e.g. humid period during late glacial or the Holocene in the Alps and Andes (Korner, 1999). The soil forming processes are reflected in the colour of the surface soil (Pandey, 1997). The combination of iron oxides and organic content gives many soil types a brown colour (Anthwal, 2004). Many darker soils are not warmer than adjacent lighter coloured soils because of the temperature modifying effect of the moisture, in fact they may be cooler (Pandey, 1997). The alpine sites of the resent study has soil colour varying from dark yellowish brown/yellowish brown to brown at different depths. Likewise, at the moraine sites, the soil colour was dark grayish brown/grayish brown to brown. The dark coloured soils of the moraine and alpine sites having high humus contents absorb more heat than light coloured soils. Therefore, the dark soils hold more water. Water requires relatively large amount of heat than the soil minerals to raise its temperature and it also absorbs considerable heat for evaporation. At all sites, dark colour of soil was found due to high organic contents by the addition of litter. Soil texture is an important modifying factor in relation to the proportion of precipitation that enters the soil and is available to plants (Pandey, 1997). Texture refers to the proportion of sand, silt, and clay in the soil. Sandy soil is light or coarse-textured, whereas, the clay soils are heavy or fine-textured. Sand holds less moisture per unit volume, but permits more rapid percolation of precipitated water than silt and clay. Clay tends to increase the water-holding capacity of the soil. Loamy soils have a balanced sand, silt, and clay composition and are thus superior for plant growth (Pidwirny, 2004). Soil of the alpine zone of Dokriani Bamak was silty predominated by clay and loam, whereas the soil of moraine zone was silty predominated by sand and clay. There is a close relationship between atmospheric temperature and soil temperature. The high organic matter (humus) help in retaining more soil water. During summers, high radiations with greater insulation period enhance the atmospheric temperature resulted in the greater evaporation of soil water. In the monsoon months (July-August) the high rainfall increased soil moisture under relative atmospheric and soil temperature due to cloud-filter radiations (Pandey, 1997). Owing to September rainfall, atmospheric and soil temperatures decreased. The soil moisture is controlled by atmospheric temperature coupled with absorption of water by plants. During October, occasional rainfall and strong cold winds lower down the atmospheric temperature further. The soil temperature remains more or less intact from the outer influence due to a slight frost layer as well as vegetation cover. Soil temperature was recorded low at the moraine sites than the alpine sites. During May, insulation period in creases with increase in the atmospheric and soil temperature and it decreases during rainfall. The increasing temperature influences soil moisture adversely and an equilibrium is attained only after the first monsoon showers in the month of June which continued till August. Donahue et al. (1987) stated that no levelled land with a slope at right angle to the Sun would receive more heat per soil area and will warm faster than the flat surface. The soil layer impermeable to moisture have been cited as the reason for treelessness in part of the tropics, wherein its absence savanna develops (Beard, 1953). The resulting water logging of soil during the rainy season creates conditions not suitable for the growth of trees capable of surviving the dry season. The water holding capacity of the soil is determined by several factors. Most important among these are soil texture or size of particles, porosity and the amount of expansible organic matter and colloidal clay (Pandey, 1997). Water is held as thin film upon the surface of the particles and runs together forming drops in saturated soils, the amount necessarily increases with an increase in the water holding surface. Organic matter affects water contents directly by retaining water in large amount on the extensive surfaces of its colloidal constituents and also by holding it like a sponge in its less decayed portion. It also had an indirect effect through soil structure. Sand particles loosely cemented together by it, hence, percolation is decreased and water-holding capacity increased. Although fine textured soil can hold more water and thus more total water holding capacity but maximum available water is held in moderate textured soil. Porosity in soil consists of that portion of the soil volume not occupied by solids, either mineral or organic material. Under natural conditions, the pore spaces are occupied at all times by air and water. Pore spaces are irregular in shape in sand than the clay. The most rapid water and air movement is observed in sands than strongly aggregated soils. The pH of alpine sites ranged from 4.4 to 5.3 and it ranged from 4.8 to 6.1 in moraine sites of Dokriani Bamak. It indicated the acidic nature of the soil. The moraine sites were more acidic than the alpine sites. Acidity of soil is exhibited due to the presence of different acids. The organic matter and nitrogen contents inhibit the acidity of soil. The present observations pertaining to the soil pH (4.4 to 5.3 and 4.8 to 6.1) were more or less in the same range as reported for other meadows and moraine zones. Ram (1988) reported pH from 4.0-6.0 in Rudranath and Gaur (2002) on Chorabari. These pH ranges are lower than the oak and pine forests of lower altitudes of Himalayan region as observed by Singh and Singh, 1987 (pH:6.0-6.3). Furthermore, pH increased with depth. Bliss (1963) analyzed that in all types of soil, pH was low in upper layers (4.0-4.30) and it increased (4.6-4.9) in lower layer at New Hampshire due to reduction in organic matter. Das et al. (1988) reported the simil ar results in the sub alpine areas of Eastern Himalayas. All these reports support the present findings on Dokriani Bamak strongly. A potent acidic soil is intensively eroded and it has lower exchangeable cation, and possesses least microbial activity (Donahue et al., 1987). Misra et al., 1970 also observed higher acidity in the soil in the region where high precipitation results leaching. Koslowska (1934) demonstrated that when plants were grown under conditions of known pH, they make the culture medium either more acidic or alkaline and that this property differed according to the species. Soil properties may ch Soil Analysis of the Himalayan Mountain System Soil Analysis of the Himalayan Mountain System Chapter- 4 ABIOTIC ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES OF MORAINIC AND ALPINE ECOSYSTEMS Global warming/ enhanced greenhouse effect and the loss of biodiversity are the major environmental issues around the world. The greatest part of the worlds population lives in the tropical regions. Mountainous regions in many cases provide favourable conditions for water supply due to orographically enhanced convective precipitation. Earth scientists are examining ancient periods of extreme warmth, such as the Miocene climatic optimum of about 14.5-17 million years ago. Fossil floral and faunal evidences indicate that this was the warmest time of the past 35 million years; a mid-latitude temperature was as much as 60C higher than the present one. Many workers believe that high carbon dioxide levels, in combination with oceanographic changes, caused Miocene global warming by the green house effect. Pagani et al. (1999) present evidence for surprisingly low carbon dioxide levels of about 180-290ppm by volume throughout the early to late Miocene (9-25 million years). They concluded tha t green house warming by carbon dioxide couldnt explain Miocene warmth and other mechanism must have had a greater influence. Carbon dioxide is a trace gas in the Earths atmosphere, which exchanges between carbon reservoirs in particularly the oceans and the biosphere. Consequently atmospheric concentration shows temporal, local and regional fluctuations. Since the beginning of industrialization, its atmospheric concentration has increased. The 1974 mean concentration of atmospheric CO2 was about 330 ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1 (Baes et. al., 1976), which is equivalent to 2574 x 1015 g CO2 702.4 x 1015 C assuming 5.14 x 1021 g as the mass of the atmosphere. This value is significantly higher than the amount of atmospheric CO2 in 1860 that was about 290 ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1 (617.2 x 1015 g). Precise measurements of the atmospheric CO2 concentration started in 1957 at the South Pole, Antarctica (Brown and Keeling, 1965) and in 1958 at Mauna Loa, Hawaii (Pales and Keeling, 1965). Records from Mauna Loa show that the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere has risen since 1958, from 315 mmol mol-1 to approximately 360 315 mmol mol-1 in 1963 (Boden et al., 1994). From these records and other measurements that began more recently, it is clear that the present rate of CO2 increase ranges between 1.5 and 2.5 mmol mol-1 per annum. In the context of the Indian Himalayan region, the effect of warming is apparent on the recession of glaciers (Valdiya, 1988), which is one of the climatic sensitive environmental indicators, and serves as a measure of the natural variability of climate of mountains over long time scales (Beniston et al., 1997). However no comprehensive long-term data on CO2 levels are available. The consumption of CO2 by photosynthesis on land is about 120 x 1015 g dry organic matter/year, which is equivalent to about 54 x 1015gC/yr (Leith and Whittaker, 1975). Variations in the atmospheric CO2 content on land are mainly due to the exchange of CO2 between vegetation and the atmosphere (Leith, 1963; Baumgartner, 1969). The process in this exchange is photosynthesis and respiration. The consumption of CO2 by the living plant material is balanced by a corresponding production of CO2 during respiration of the plants themselves and from decay of organic material, which occurs mainly in the soil through the activity of bacteria (soil respiration). The release of CO2 from the soil depends on the type, structure, moisture and temperature of the soil. The CO2 concentration in soil can be 1000 times higher than in air (Enoch and Dasberg, 1971). Due to these processes, diurnal variations in the atmospheric CO2 contents on ground level are resulted. High mountain ecosystems are considered vulnerable to climate change (Beniston, 1994; Grabherr et al., 1995; Theurillat and Guisan, 2001). The European Alps experienced a 20 C increase in annual minimum temperatures during the twentieth century, with a marked rise since the early 1980s (Beniston et al., 1997). Upward moving of alpine plants has been noticed (Grabherr et al., 1994; Pauli et al., 2001), community composition has changed at high alpine sites (Keller et al., 2000), and treeline species have responded to climate warming by invasion of the alpine zone or increased growth rates during the last decades (Paulsen et al., 2000). Vegetation at glaciers fronts is commonly affected by glacial fluctuations (Coe, 1967; Spence, 1989; Mizumo, 1998). Coe (1967) described vegetation zonation, plant colonization and the distribution of individual plant species on the slopes below the Tyndall and Lewis glaciers. Spence (1989) analyzed the advance of plant communities in response to the re treat of the Tyndall and Lewis glaciers for the period 1958- 1984. Mizumo (1998) addressed plant communities in response to more recent glacial retreat by conducting field research in 1992, 1994, 1996 and 1997. The studies illustrated the link between ice retreat and colonization near the Tyndall and Lewis glaciers. The concern about the future global climate warming and its geoecological consequences strongly urges development and analysis of climate sensitive biomonitoring systems. The natural elevational tree limit is often assumed to represent an ideal early warming line predicted to respond positionally, structurally and compositionally even to quite modest climate fluctuations. Several field studies in different parts of the world present that climate warming earlier in the 20th century (up to the 1950s 1960s) has caused tree limit advances (Kullman, 1998). Purohit (1991) also reported upward shifting of species in Garhwal Himalaya. The Himalayan mountain system is a conspicuous landmass characterised by its unique crescent shape, high orography, varied lithology and complex structure. The mountain system is rather of young geological age through the rock material it contains has a long history of sedimentation, metamorphism and magmatism from Proterozoic to Quaternary in age. Geologically, it occupies a vast terrain covering the northern boundary of India, entire Nepal, Bhutan and parts of China and Pakistan stretching from almost 720 E to 960 E meridians for about 2500 km in length. In terms of orography, the geographers have conceived four zones in the Himalaya across its long axis. From south to north, these are (i) the sub-Himalaya, comprising low hill ranges of Siwalik, not rising above 1,000 m in altitude; (ii) the Lesser Himalaya, comprising a series of mountain ranges not rising above 4000 m in altitude; (iii) the Great Himalaya, comprising very high mountain ranges with glaciers, rising above 6,000 m i n altitude and (iv) the Trans-Himalaya, Comprising very high mountain ranges with glaciers. The four orographic zones of the Himalaya are not strictly broad morpho-tectonic units though tectonism must have played a key role in varied orographic attainments of different zones. Their conceived boundaries do not also coincide with those of litho-stratigraphic or tectono-stratigraphic units. Because of the involvement of a large number of parameters of variable nature, the geomorphic units are expected to be diverse but cause specific, having close links with mechanism and crustal movements (Ghosh, et al., 1989). Soil is essential for the continued existence of life on the planet. Soil takes thousands of years to form and only few years to destroy their productivity as a result of erosion and other types of improper management. It is a three dimensional body consisting of solid, liquid and gaseous phase. It includes any part of earths crust, which through the process of weathering and incorporation of organic matter has become capable in securing and supporting plants. Living organisms and the transformation they perform have a profound effect on the ability of soils to provide food and fiber for expanding world population. Soils are used to produce crops, range and timber. Soil is basic to our survival and it is natures waste disposal medium and it serves as habitats for varied kinds of plants, birds, animals, and microorganisms. As a source of stores and transformers of plant nutrients, soil has a major influence on terrestrial ecosystems. Soil continuously recycles plant and animal remains , and they are major support systems for human life, determining the agricultural production capacity of the land (Anthwal, 2004). Soil is a natural product of the environment. Native soil forms from the parent material by action of climate (temperature, wind, and water), native vegetation and microbes. The shape of the land surface affects soil formation. It is also affected by the time it took for climate, vegetation, and microbes to create the soil. Soil varies greatly in time and space. Over time-scales relevant to geo-indicators, they have both stable characteristics (e.g. mineralogical composition and relative proportions of sand, silt and clay) and those that respond rapidly to changing environmental conditions (e.g. ground freezing). The latter characteristics include soil moisture and soil microbiota (e.g. nematodes, microbes), which are essential to fluxes of plant nutrients and greenhouse gases (Peirce, and Larson, 1996.). Most soils resist short-term climate change, but some may undergo irreversible change such as lateritic hardening and densification, podsolization, or large-scale erosion. Chemical degradation takes place because of depletion of soluble elements through rainwater leaching, over cropping and over grazing, or because of the accumulation of salts precipitated from rising ground water or irrigation schemes. It may also be caused by sewage containing toxic metals, precipitation of acidic and other airborne contaminants, as well as by persistent use of fertilizers and pesticides (Page et al., 1986). Physical degradation results from land clearing, erosion and compaction by machinery (Klute, 1986). The key soil indicators are texture (especially clay content), bulk density, aggregate stability and size distribution, and water-holding capacity (Anthwal, 2004). Soil consists of 45% mineral, 25% water, 25% air and 5% organic matter (both living and dead organisms). There are thousands of different soils throughout the world. Soil are classified on the basis of their parent material, texture, structure, and profile There are five key factors in soil formation: i) type of parent material; ii) climate; iii) overlying vegetation; iv) topography or slope; and v) time. Climate controls the distribution of vegetation or soil organisms. Together climate and vegetation/soil organisms often are called the active factors of soil formation (genesis). This is because, on gently undulating topography within a certain climatic and vegetative zone a characteristic or typical soil will develop unless parent material differences are very great (Anthwal, 2004). Thus, the tall and mid-grass prairie soils have developed across a variety of parent materials. Soil structure comprises the physical constitution of soil material as expressed by size, shape, and arrangement of solid particles and voids (Jongmans et al., 2001). Soil structure is an important soil property in many clayey, agricultural soils. Physical and chemical properties and also the nutrient status of the soil vary spatially due to the changing nature of the climate, parent material, physiographic position and vegetation (Behari et al., 2004). Soil brings together many ecosystem processes, integrating mineral and organic processes; and biological, physical and chemical processes (Arnold et al., 1990, Yaalon 1990). Soil may respond slowly to environmental changes than other elements of the ecosystem such as, the plants and animal do. Changes in soil organic matter can also indicate vegetation change, which can occur quickly because of climatic change (Almendinger, 1990). In high altitudes, soils are formed by the process of solifluction. Soils on the slopes above 300 are generally shallow due to erosion and mass wasting processes and usually have very thin surface horizons. Such skeletal soils have median to coarse texture depending on the type of material from which they have been derived. Glacial plants require water, mineral resources and support from substrate, which differ from alpine and lower altitude in many aspects. The plant life gets support by deeply weathered profile in moraine soils, which develops thin and mosaic type of vegetation. Most of the parent material is derived by mechanical weathering and the soils are rather coarse textured and stony. Permafrost occurs in many of the high mountains and the soils are typically cold and wet. The soils of the moraine region remain moist during the summer because drainage is impeded by permafrost (Gaur, 2002). In general, the north facing slopes support deep, moist and fertile soils. The south facing slopes, on the other hand, are precipitous and well exposed to denudation. These soils are shallow, dry and poor and are often devoid of any kind of regolith (Pandey, 1997). Based on various samples, Nand et al., (1989) finds negative correlation between soil pH and altitude and argues that decrease in pH with the increase in elevation is possibly accounted by high rainfall which facilitated leaching out of Calcium and Magnesium from surface soils. The soils are invariably rich in Potash, medium in Phosphorus and poor in Nitrogen contents. However, information on geo-morphological aspects, soil composition and mineral contents of alpine and moraine in Garhwal Himalaya are still lacking. Present investigation was aimed to carry out detail observations on soil composition of the alpine and moraine region of Garhwal Himalaya. 4.1. OBSERVATIONS As far as the recordings of abiotic environmental variables of morainic and alpine ecosystems of Dokriani Bamak are concerned, the atmospheric carbon dioxide and the physical and chemical characteristics of the soil were recorded under the present study. As these are important for the present study. 4.1.1. Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide Diurnal variations in the atmospheric CO2 were recorded at Dokriani Bamak from May 2005- October 2005. Generally the concentration of CO2 was higher during night and early morning hours (0600-0800) and lower during daytime. However, there were fluctuations in the patterns of diurnal changes in CO2 concentration on daily basis. In the month of May 2005, carbon dioxide concentration ranged from a minimum of 375Â µmol mol-1 to a maximum of 395Â µmol mol-1. When the values were averaged for the measurement days the maximum and minimum values ranged from 378Â µmol mol-1 to 388Â µmol mol-1. A difference of 20Â µmol mol-1 was found between the maximum and minimum values recorded for the measurement days. When the values were averaged, a difference of 10Â µmol mol-1 was observed between maximum and minimum values. During the measurement period, CO2 concentrations varied from a minimum of 377ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1 at 12 noon to a maximum of 400ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1 at 0800 hrs in the month of June, 2005. When the CO2 values were averaged for 6 days, the difference between the minimum and maximum values was about 23ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1. In the month of July, levels of carbon dioxide concentrations ranged from a minimum of 369ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1 to a maximum of 390ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1. When the values of the carbon dioxide concentrations for the measuring period were averaged, the difference between the minimum and maximum values was about 21ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1. Carbon dioxide concentration ranged from a minimum of 367ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1 to a maximum of 409ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1 during the month of August. When the values of carbon dioxide were averaged for the measurement days, the difference in the minimum and maximum values was about 42ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1. During the measurement period (September), CO2 concentrations varied from a minimum of 371ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1 at 12 noon to a maximum of 389ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1 at 0600 hrs indicating a difference of 18ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1 between the maximum and minimum values. When the values of the measurement days were averaged the minimum and maximum values ranged from 375ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1 to 387ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1 and a difference of 12ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1 was recorded. During the month of October, carbon dioxide levels ranged from a minimum of 372ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1 at 1400 hrs to a maximum of 403ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1 at 2000 hrs indicating a difference of 31ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1. When the values were averaged, the carbon dioxide levels ranged from a minimum of 376ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1 to a maximum of 415ÃŽ ¼mol mol-1.A difference in the minimum and maximum values was found to be 39Â µmol mol-1 when the values were averaged for the measurements days. In the growing season (May-October) overall carbon dioxide concentration was recorded to be highest in the month of June and seasonally it was recorded highest during the month of October 4.1.2. A. Soil Physical Characteristics of Soil Soil Colour and Texture Soils of the study area tend to have distinct variations in colour both horizontally and vertically (Table 4.1). The colour of the soil varied with soil depth. It was dark yellowish brown at the depth of 10-20cm, 30-40cm of AS1 and AS2, brown at the depth of 0-10cm of AS1 and AS2 and yellowish brown at the depths of 20-30cm, 40-50cm, 50-60cm of AS1 and AS2). Whereas the soil colour was grayish brown at the depths of 0-10cm, 30-40cm, 50-60cm of MS1 and MS2, dark grayish brown at the depths of 10-20cm, 20-30cm of MS1 and MS2 and brown at the depth of 40-50cm of both the moraine sites (MS1 and MS2). Soil texture is the relative volume of sand, silt and clay particles in a soil. Soils of the study area had high proportion of silt followed by sand and clay (Table 4.2). Soil of the alpine sites was identified as silty loam category, whereas, the soil of the moraine was of silty clayey loam category. Soil Temperature The soil temperature depends on the amount of heat reaching the soil surface and dissipation of heat in soil. Figure 4.2 depicts soil temperature at all the sites in the active growth period. A maximum (13.440C) soil temperature was recorded during the month of July and minimum (4.770C) during the month of October at AS1. The soil temperature varied between 5.10C being the lowest during the month of October to 12.710C as maximum during the month of August at AS2. Soil temperature ranged from 3.240C (October) to 11.210C (July) at MS1. However, the soil temperature ranged from 3.40C (October) to 12.330C (July) at MS2. Soil Moisture (%) Moisture has a big influence on soils ability to compact. Some soils wont compact well until moisture is 7-8%. Â  Likewise, wet soil also doesnt compact well. The mean soil water percentage (Fig. 4.3) in study area fluctuated between a maximum of 83% (AS1) to a minimum of 15% (AS2). The values of soil water percentage ranged from a minimum of 8% (MS2) to a maximum of 80% (MS1). Soil water percentage was higher in the month of July at AS1 and during August at MS1 (. During the month of June, soil water percentage was recorded minimum in the lower depth (50-60cm) at both the sites. Water Holding Capacity (WHC) The mean water holding capacity of the soil varied from alpine sites to moraine sites (Table 4.4). It ranged from a maximum of 89.66% (August) to a minimum of 79.15% (May) at AS1. The minimum and maximum values at AS2 were 78.88% (May) to 89.66% (August), respectively. The maximum WHC was recorded to be 84.61 % during the month of September on upper layer (0-10 cm) at MS1 and minimum 60.36% during the month of May in the lower layer (50-60cm) at MS1. At MS2, WHC ranged from 60.66% (May) to 84.61% (September). However, maximum WHC was recorded in upper layers at both the sites of alpine and moraine. Soil pH The soil pH varied from site to site during the course of the present study (Table 4.5). Mean pH values of all the sites are presented in Figure 4.4 The soil of the study area was acidic. Soil of the moraine sites was more acidic than that of the alpine sites. Soil pH ranged from 4.4 to 5.3 (AS1), 4.5 to 5.2 (AS2), 4.9 to 6.1 (MS1) and 4.8 to 5.7 (MS2). 4.1.2 B. Chemical Characteristics of Soil Organic Carbon (%): Soil organic carbon (SOC) varied with depths and months at both the alpine and moraine sites (Table 4.6). High percentage of organic carbon was observed in the upper layer of all sites during the entire period of study. Soil organic C decreased with depth and it was lowest in lower layers at all the sites. Soil organic carbon was maximum (5.1%) during July at AS1 because of high decomposition of litter, while it was minimum (4.2%) during October due to high uptake by plants in the uppermost layer (0-10 cm). A maximum (5.0%) SOC was found during the month of July and minimum (4.1%) during October at AS2. At the moraine sites, maximum (3.58%, 3.73%) SOC was found during June and minimum (1.5% and 1.9%) during August at MS1 and MS2 respectively. Phosphorus (%): A low amount of phosphorus was observed from May to August which increased during September and October. The mean phosphorus percentage ranged from 0.02 Â ± 0.01 to 0.07 Â ± 0.03 at AS1 and AS2. It was 0.03Â ±0.01 to 0.03Â ±0.02 at MS1 and MS2. Maximum percentage of phosphorus was estimated to be 0.09 in the uppermost layer (0-10 cm) during October at AS1. The lower layer (40-50 cm) of soil horizon contained a minimum of 0.01% phosphorus during September at AS1 and AS2. In the moraine sites (MS1 and MS2), maximum phosphorus percentage of 0.03 Â ±0.01 was estimated in the upper layers (0-10, 10-20, 20-30 cm) while it was found to be minimum (0.02Â ±0.01) in the lower layers (30-40 cm). Overall, a decreasing trend in amount of phosphorus was found with depth in alpine as well as moraine sites Potassium (%): A decline in potassium contents was also observed with declining depth during the active growing season. Maximum value of potassium was found in the uppermost layer (0-10 cm) at all the sites. The mean values ranged from 0.71Â ±0.02 to 46Â ±0.06 at AS1 while it was 0.71Â ±0.02 to 0.47Â ±0.05 at AS2. In the moraine sites the values ranged from a minimum of 0.33 Â ±0.06 to a maximum of 0.59Â ±0.05 in the MS1 and from 0.59Â ±0.05 to 0.32Â ±0.06 at MS2. In the upper layer of soil horizon (0-10 cm), maximum value of 0.74 %, 0.75% of potassium was observed during the month of July at AS1 and AS2. While the values were maximum in the month of October at moraine sites MS1 and MS2 having 0.66% and 0.65% respectively Nitrogen (%): Highest percentage of nitrogen was found in the upper layers at all the sites. Maximum percentage of nitrogen were found during the month of July-August (0.25%, 0.25 and 0.26%, 0.25%) at AS1 and AS2, respectively. Maximum values of 0.18% and 0.15% respectively were found during the month of June at the moraine sites MS1 and MS2. The nitrogen percentage ranged from 0.23Â ±0.02 to 0.04Â ±0.01% at AS1. However, it ranged from a minimum of 0.05Â ±0.01 to 0.24Â ±0.02% at AS2. The nitrogen percentage ranged from a minimum of 0.03Â ±0.01, 0.02Â ±0.04% to a maximum of 12Â ±0.03, 13Â ±0.01%, respectively at MS1 and MS2 Overall, a decreasing trend was noticed in the nitrogen percentage with depth at both the alpine and moraine sites. 4.2. DISCUSSION Soil has a close relationship with geomorphology and vegetation type of the area (Gaur, 2002). Any change in the geomorphological process and vegetational pattern influences the pedogenic processes. However, variability in soil is a characteristic even within same geomorphic position (Gaur, 2002). Jenney (1941) in his discussion on organisms as a soil forming factors treated vegetation both as an independent and as dependent variable. In order to examine the role of vegetation as an independent variable, it would be possible to study the properties of soil as influenced by vegetation while all other soil forming factors such as climate, parent material, topography and time are maintaining at a particular constellation. Many soil properties may be related to a climatic situation revealing thousand years ago (e.g. humid period during late glacial or the Holocene in the Alps and Andes (Korner, 1999). The soil forming processes are reflected in the colour of the surface soil (Pandey, 1997). The combination of iron oxides and organic content gives many soil types a brown colour (Anthwal, 2004). Many darker soils are not warmer than adjacent lighter coloured soils because of the temperature modifying effect of the moisture, in fact they may be cooler (Pandey, 1997). The alpine sites of the resent study has soil colour varying from dark yellowish brown/yellowish brown to brown at different depths. Likewise, at the moraine sites, the soil colour was dark grayish brown/grayish brown to brown. The dark coloured soils of the moraine and alpine sites having high humus contents absorb more heat than light coloured soils. Therefore, the dark soils hold more water. Water requires relatively large amount of heat than the soil minerals to raise its temperature and it also absorbs considerable heat for evaporation. At all sites, dark colour of soil was found due to high organic contents by the addition of litter. Soil texture is an important modifying factor in relation to the proportion of precipitation that enters the soil and is available to plants (Pandey, 1997). Texture refers to the proportion of sand, silt, and clay in the soil. Sandy soil is light or coarse-textured, whereas, the clay soils are heavy or fine-textured. Sand holds less moisture per unit volume, but permits more rapid percolation of precipitated water than silt and clay. Clay tends to increase the water-holding capacity of the soil. Loamy soils have a balanced sand, silt, and clay composition and are thus superior for plant growth (Pidwirny, 2004). Soil of the alpine zone of Dokriani Bamak was silty predominated by clay and loam, whereas the soil of moraine zone was silty predominated by sand and clay. There is a close relationship between atmospheric temperature and soil temperature. The high organic matter (humus) help in retaining more soil water. During summers, high radiations with greater insulation period enhance the atmospheric temperature resulted in the greater evaporation of soil water. In the monsoon months (July-August) the high rainfall increased soil moisture under relative atmospheric and soil temperature due to cloud-filter radiations (Pandey, 1997). Owing to September rainfall, atmospheric and soil temperatures decreased. The soil moisture is controlled by atmospheric temperature coupled with absorption of water by plants. During October, occasional rainfall and strong cold winds lower down the atmospheric temperature further. The soil temperature remains more or less intact from the outer influence due to a slight frost layer as well as vegetation cover. Soil temperature was recorded low at the moraine sites than the alpine sites. During May, insulation period in creases with increase in the atmospheric and soil temperature and it decreases during rainfall. The increasing temperature influences soil moisture adversely and an equilibrium is attained only after the first monsoon showers in the month of June which continued till August. Donahue et al. (1987) stated that no levelled land with a slope at right angle to the Sun would receive more heat per soil area and will warm faster than the flat surface. The soil layer impermeable to moisture have been cited as the reason for treelessness in part of the tropics, wherein its absence savanna develops (Beard, 1953). The resulting water logging of soil during the rainy season creates conditions not suitable for the growth of trees capable of surviving the dry season. The water holding capacity of the soil is determined by several factors. Most important among these are soil texture or size of particles, porosity and the amount of expansible organic matter and colloidal clay (Pandey, 1997). Water is held as thin film upon the surface of the particles and runs together forming drops in saturated soils, the amount necessarily increases with an increase in the water holding surface. Organic matter affects water contents directly by retaining water in large amount on the extensive surfaces of its colloidal constituents and also by holding it like a sponge in its less decayed portion. It also had an indirect effect through soil structure. Sand particles loosely cemented together by it, hence, percolation is decreased and water-holding capacity increased. Although fine textured soil can hold more water and thus more total water holding capacity but maximum available water is held in moderate textured soil. Porosity in soil consists of that portion of the soil volume not occupied by solids, either mineral or organic material. Under natural conditions, the pore spaces are occupied at all times by air and water. Pore spaces are irregular in shape in sand than the clay. The most rapid water and air movement is observed in sands than strongly aggregated soils. The pH of alpine sites ranged from 4.4 to 5.3 and it ranged from 4.8 to 6.1 in moraine sites of Dokriani Bamak. It indicated the acidic nature of the soil. The moraine sites were more acidic than the alpine sites. Acidity of soil is exhibited due to the presence of different acids. The organic matter and nitrogen contents inhibit the acidity of soil. The present observations pertaining to the soil pH (4.4 to 5.3 and 4.8 to 6.1) were more or less in the same range as reported for other meadows and moraine zones. Ram (1988) reported pH from 4.0-6.0 in Rudranath and Gaur (2002) on Chorabari. These pH ranges are lower than the oak and pine forests of lower altitudes of Himalayan region as observed by Singh and Singh, 1987 (pH:6.0-6.3). Furthermore, pH increased with depth. Bliss (1963) analyzed that in all types of soil, pH was low in upper layers (4.0-4.30) and it increased (4.6-4.9) in lower layer at New Hampshire due to reduction in organic matter. Das et al. (1988) reported the simil ar results in the sub alpine areas of Eastern Himalayas. All these reports support the present findings on Dokriani Bamak strongly. A potent acidic soil is intensively eroded and it has lower exchangeable cation, and possesses least microbial activity (Donahue et al., 1987). Misra et al., 1970 also observed higher acidity in the soil in the region where high precipitation results leaching. Koslowska (1934) demonstrated that when plants were grown under conditions of known pH, they make the culture medium either more acidic or alkaline and that this property differed according to the species. Soil properties may ch